GRAMMAR 15 Linking words 1 FIRST CERTIFICATE LANGUAGE PRACTICE 10 Look carefully at each line. Some of the lines are correct, and some have a word which should not be there. Tick each correct line. If a line has a word which should not be there, write the word in the space. The psychology of accidents Most people are under the impression that doing something by a mistake is quite different from doing something on purpose. In the fact, according to by some psychologists, many accidents do not, on the whole, really happen to by chance. There may be good reasons for actions which seem to be accidental. For an example, someone who fails to arrive on time as for a meeting at work may be worried about his or her job, or be in with difficulties at home. In other words, there are often good reasons for behaviour which seems at the first to be accidental. Of this course, some people are involved in more accidents than others. These people are called 'accident prone'. In the general they either suffer from stress, or could have in a physical illness without knowing about it. Key points 1 There is a group of prepositions used with verbs of motion. across, along, around, down, into, out of, past, to, towards, up 2 Some prepositions can be used without an object. fean lives opposite. 3 A sentence can end with a preposition. Paul didn't have a chair to sit on. SEE ALSO / ..........<7[ 1) .............. 2).............. 3).............. 4).............. 5) ............. 6)............. 7)............. 8)............. 9) ............. 10)............. 11)............. 12) ............. 13) ............. 14)............. 15) ............. Purpose Result Grammar 14: Time expressions Grammar IS: Consolidation 3 Explanations ■ So (that) We can use so that to express purpose (the reason why someone does something). So that is usually followed by can, could, will or would. The police locked the door so (that) no-one could get in. ■ Infinitive of purpose We can also use to to express purpose. The subject of the main clause and of the purpose clause must be the same. jack went to England so that he could study engineering. Jack went to England to study engineering. (NOT for to study) If the two subjects are different, we can't use to. We have to use so that. Jack went to England so that his brother would have some help working in the restaurant. m In order to, so as to These are more formal ways of expressing purpose. Scientists used only local materials, in order to save money. There are also negative forms: in order not to, so as not to. The soldiers moved at night, so as not to alarm the villagers. u For This describes how something is used. This button is for starting the engine. This is for the lights. ■ So, such a So is used with an adjective or adverb. Jim was so tall (that) he hit his head on the ceiling. Jim drove so quickly (that) they reached the station twenty minutes early. Such a is used with adjective + singular noun. Helen is such a busy person (that) she never feels bored. ■ So many, so much, so few, so little So many/few are used with plural nouns. So much/little are used with uncountable nouns. There were so many passengers (that) we couldn't find a seat. There was so much noise (that) I didn't get to sleep until 3 a.m. ■ Too/Not enough + to Too means more than is necessary or good. Not enough means less than is necessary or good. They can both be used with an adjective + to. Compare: The bookcase was too big to get down the stairs. The bookcase was not small enough to get down the stairs. 74 75 Contrast ■ Although, though, even though Although often becomes though in speech. Though can come at the end of a sentence, although cannot. Although I asked her, she didn't come. (speech and writing) Though I asked her, she didn't come. (speech) / asked her, (but) she didn't come, though, (speech) Even though gives a stronger contrast than although. Even though I asked her, she didn't come, (which was really surprising) ■ While, whereas While and whereas are used in formal speech and writing. They compare two facts and emphasize the difference between them. While United were fast and accurate, City were slow and careless. m However, nevertheless However is a way of expressing contrast in formal speech or writing. It can go at the beginning, middle or end of the sentence, and is separated by a comma (or a pause in speech). Normally we don't refund money without a receipt However, on this occasion I'll do it. Normally we don't refund money without a receipt. On this occasion, however, I'll do it. Nevertheless is a very formal way of expressing however. I'm not happy with your work. Nevertheless, I'm going to give you one last chance. u Despite and in spite of These expressions are followed by a noun (including the -ing form used as a noun), and not by a clause (subject + verb). In spite of the rain, we went out. (Although it was raining, we went out.) Despite losing, we celebrated. (Although we lost, we celebrated.) GRAMMAR 13 LINKING WORDS 1 Practice Underline the most suitable word or phrase in each sentence. a) Janet went out so that she bought/to buy Harry a present. b) This food is much too hot to eat/to be eaten. c) However/Though it was late, I decided to phone Brian. d) Although/Despite the car was cheap, it was in good condition. e) Let's check once more, for being/so as to be sure. f) We could go to the club. Is it worth it, even though/though? g) It was 50 windy/such a windy that half the trees had blown down. h) The batteries were not enough small/too small to fit the radio. i) Despite of the weather/the weather, we went sailing. j) Bill had so much/so that fun that he stayed another week. 2 Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between two and five words, including the word given. a) Sue went shopping so she could buy herself a new television, to Sue ..)ti^.j}^MMM.kf0..hf^M..............................a new television. b) You use this to open wine bottles, for This...............................................................................................wine bottles. c) I put the food in the fridge because I wanted it to get cold. would I put the food in the fridge .......................................................................cold. d) Harry left early because he didn't want to miss the bus. as Harry ........................................................................................to miss the bus. e) I saved up some money to buy a motorbike, could I saved up some money................................................................a motorbike. f) Jane gave up smoking because she wanted to save money, order Jane gave up smoking...........................................................................money. g) I came here so that I could see you. to I................................................................................................................you. 76 77 FIRST CERTIFICATE LANGUAGE PRACTICE GRAMMAR 13 LINKING WORDS 1 3 Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown. Do not change the meaning. a) Sam lost his job because he was lazy. Sam was M,h^,M^M-l0.^^....................................... b) I couldn't buy the house because it was expensive. The house was too..............................*...............••........................ c) The book was so interesting that I couldn't put it down. It was...............................•................•.......................................... d) There was too much noise, so we couldn't hear the speech. There was so....................................•........................................... e) The house was too small to live in comfortably. The house wasn't..........................................................•.............. f) We can't eat now because there isn't enough time. There is too................................................................................. g) I can't come to your party because I'm too busy. I'm too........................................................................•................ h) The class was cancelled because there weren't enough students. There were so ...............................•.......................................... 4 Complete each sentence with one suitable word. a) I couldn't run fast ...^M^k.... to catch the shoplifter. b) They were.....................good roads that we could drive at high speed. c) it was.....................dark that I couldn't see a thing. d) The trousers were.....................long enough to fit Jean. e) We had.....................a good time that we decided to go there again. f) it was.....................late that we couldn't get a bus home. g) I took a taxi as it was.....................far to walk. h) The ladder wasn't tall.....................to reach the window. i) There are.....................lovely fish that you don't feel like eating meat. j) There were.....................many dishes that I couldn't make up my mind. 5 Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown. Do not change the meaning. Two sentences should be rewritten as one. a) Despite the cold weather, we all went for a walk. Although .. J£..##