Vnit 7 Modal and auxiliary verbs 1
Form
We make modal and auxiliary verbs negative by adding not.
Sally can't go out tonight. You mustn't tell him the answers. I haven't got all the answers!
We don't use to after modal verbs (except after ought). He may go. He can go. He would go if he had the time.
Use
We use modal and auxiliary verbs:
1 to make short answers. You can come tonight, can't you?
2 to make questions. Can you come tonight? Would you like a drink?
We use auxiliary verbs (be, do, have) to make tenses. Sam hasn't been to China. Sam doesn't like travelling. He had visited the Far East before. Sam is doing a lot of travelling.
Meaning
We use modal verbs for:
1 Ability - can, could
I can remember all my friends' telephone numbers. He could swim by the time he was three.
2 Logical conclusion - can't be, must be
Ann isn't answering the phone. She must be out.
This can't be the South Pole! There aren't any penguins.
3 Necessity (or lack of it) - have to, don't have to I have to cycle to school. It's too far to walk.
We don't have to go to school today - it's a national holiday
4 Obligation (usually from someone else) - have {got) to
I have to be home by ten. My mum said so.
We've got to finish this project today - the teacher wants it
tomorrow.
5 Obligation (usually from ourselves) - must, mustn't I must eat something! I'm hungry.
I mustn't forget her birthday this year.
6 Permission - can, could, may Can I go to the cinema tonight?
Could my friends come to stay next weekend? May I go and get a drink? (formal)
7 Possibility- may, might
Ann's not in class. She might be in the library.
Sam may come to the cinema with us - I'm not sure if he's
free.
8 Prohibition - mustn't
Students mustn't use a dictionary in the exam.
9 Requests -can, could, would Can you tell me the time, please? Could you pass me the salt? Will you show me how to send an email? Would you mind pouring me some water?
1 The past of don't have to is didn't have to not hadn't to.
2 We can't use the short form I've to when using the verb have to to talk about obligation. We say / have to or I've got to.
Modifiers
We use modifying adverbs to add more meaning to words.
1 Much or far show a greater degree or number of something.
This is a much /far more interesting book than the other one. It's much /far better to go by bus than drive.
2 Even shows a surprising difference in the degree or number of something.
This film is even longer than the one we saw yesterday. My brother knows even less about history than I do.
3 Quite can mean completely or rather. I'm quite sure the answer's in the book. That's quite a nice pair of jeans.
4 Just can mean exactly, a short time ago, or no more than. That bicycle's just like mine!
The post has just arrived.
We've got just enough money to take a taxi home.
5 We use very to emphasise what we're saying. / know very little about my ancestors.
He's a very clever boy.
When to use the definite article
1 We don't use the when we talk about how we travel.
/ go to school by bus. I travel by train. Is it cheaper to go by
coach or by train?
I went to Australia by ship.
2 We don't use the when we talk about cities or towns or countries.
London   Madrid  Argentina Italy
3 We do use the with the names of countries which are plural, consist of more than one country or contain the words 'Republic', 'Kingdom' or 'States'.
the People's Republic of China   the United States the United Kingdom
he meanings of will
<e use will to:
talk about our determination to do something. / will learn how to use a computer!
make a request.
Will you show me how to get onto the Internet?
, show unwillingness or inability to do something. He won't do the washing-up. The car won't start.
\ make a promise.
Of course I'll take you to the cinema.
5 make a decision.
/'// go and buy a dictionary tomorrow.
5 offer help.
I'll help you with that suitcase.
7 make a prediction.
It'll probably rain tomorrow.
The present simple
We use the present simple to talk about events which are already arranged for the future and often for timetabled events.
School starts on Monday.
The course finishes on the 25th.
Lunch is at! p.m.
The zero conditional
Form
//+	present,	+ present
If	you eat a well-balanced diet,	you stay healthy.
If	you heat ice,	it melts.
We can also use these sentences the other way round. We don't use a comma.
You stay healthy if you eat a well-balanced diet. Ice melts if you heat it.
Use
We use the zero conditional to:
talk about things which are almost always true, especially scientific facts.
// you jump into the sea, you get wet.
If you drop something, it falls to the ground.
The first conditional Form
//+ present, + will (or a modal) + infinitive
// it's sunny tomorrow, we'll have a picnic. If you feel ill, you should see a doctor.
Use
We use the first conditional to talk about something which may or may not happen in the future.
// / get good marks in the exam, I'll go out and celebrate.
If you pass your driving test, I might buy you a second-hand car.
Watch out I
In conversation and informal writing, we use the short form of will (unless we are asking a question).
/'// go and see Pam tomorrow. Sam won't be back until late. When to use articles
We use the definite article with the names of rivers, seas and oceans.
the Seine  the Pacific   the Mediterranean
UnitW Modal verbs 2
Obligation, necessity and prohibition
We use:
1 must to talk about an obligation from ourselves or from someone else.
/ must buy some new clothes. You must be home by ten.
2 had to to talk about an obligation in the past.
We had to stay behind after the lesson and do some extra work.
3 should and ought to to talk about what it is a good idea to do.
/ should / ought to try to save some money.
4 shouldn't to talk about what it is wrong to do. Students shouldn't talk in the library.
5 mustn't to talk about things that are prohibited. You mustn't park in front of the school.
Lack of necessity
We use:
1 needn't to talk about something that is not necessary. You needn't get up early tomorrow. It's Sunday.
2 don't have to or haven't got to to talk about something we are not obliged to do.
We don't have to / haven't got to hand in this homework until next Friday.
3 didn't have to or didn't need to to talk about a lack of obligation or necessity in the past. We didn't have to / didn't need to hand in this homework yesterday.
Possibility, permission and ability
We use:
1 may, might or could to talk about possibility. It may rain this afternoon. William might be going to university. I could come and see you tomorrow if you like.
2 can, could or may to ask for or give permission.
Can I leave the room for a moment, please? Could I see you tomorrow at ten? May I ask you a question? Yes, of course you may. {May is more formal.)
3 can and could to talk about ability. / can type fifty words a minute. I couldn't type at all five years ago.
Logical conclusions about the past
We use must/can't have been to make logical conclusions about the past.
You must have been tired after all that hard work last week. You can't have been tired last Sunday - you slept for hours!
When to use articles
We do not use articles with:
1 plural nouns when we are speaking generally. / couldn't live without books, (books in general)
2 abstract nouns. ambition   happiness love
We use the definite article:
1 with plural nouns to give more specific information. The books I bought recently are very interesting.
2 with abstract nouns to give specific information.
The happiness we experience as children is often difficult to find again.
TJnit I* Sentence structure Defining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses tell us which person or thing we mean.
We use:
1 who for a person.
This is the student who went on an adventure holiday.
2 which for a thing.
This is the holiday which interests me most.
3 feoffor a person or a thing.
Paul is the sports instructor that taught us last term. Caving is a sport that can be dangerous.
4 whose when we want to say 'belonging to a person or a thing'.
This is the film star whose performance has just won an Oscar.
London is a city whose population is over 12 million.
Noun clauses
We can use:
1 noun clauses as an object (instead of a noun) after a verb. / don't know what time it is.
2 the word that before a noun clause. / think that you are very adventurous.
3 a noun clause without the word that. I think (that) you are taking a big risk.
4 a question word to introduce a noun clause. / don't know who the man is.
Nobody told me where he came from.
I don't remember when he came to live here.
I don't understand why he came to this part of the world.
Nobody knows how long he has lived in that house.
Expressing result and purpose
We use:
1 so that... to describe purpose.
Catherine worked hard so that she could get enough money to travel abroad, (in order to get enough money)
2 so ... that to describe result.
Catherine worked so hard that she earned enough money to travel round the world, (because she worked so hard, she earned enough money)