22 I Academic Writing for Graduate Students
Language Focus: Linking Words and Phrases
Linking words and phrases can help a writer maintain flow and
establish clear relationships between ideas. Table 1 lists some of the
more common linking words and phrases, arranged according to
their function and grammatical use. Sentence connectors raise a
small, but important issue, namely punctuation. The flowchart in
figure 2 can help you choose appropriate punctuation.
TABLE 1. Linking Words and Phrases
Subordinators
Sentence
Connectors
Phrase
Linkers
in addition toAddition
Adversative although
even though
despite the fact
that
because
since
Cause and
Effect
Clarification
Contrast while
whereas
Illustration
Intensification
furthermore
in addition
moreover
however
nevertheless
despite
in spite of
therefore
as a result
consequently
hence
thus*
in other words
that is
i.e.
in contrast
however
on the other
hand
conversely
for example
for instance
on the contrary
as a matter of
fact
in fact
because of
due to
as a result of
unlike
.Note that thus may also be used in nonfinite clauses of result. The scandal deeperU!d, thus
causing the Minister to resign.
Punctuation depends on
the type of initiator in
the second clause.
Conjunction
and, but, or
Connector
however, thus,
also. . .
Subordinator
because, if,
while. . .
Use a comma. Use a
semicolon or
period.
Use a comma.
Birds fly, but
fish swim.
Birds fly;
however, fish
swim.
Birds fly,while
fish swim.
~
If there is no second
clause initiator (such as
but, if, or hence),
punctuation depends on
the type of clause being
joined.
His theory being
wrong, he lost
the argument.
His theory was
wrong; he lost
the argument.
He lost the
argument, his
theory being
Fig. 2. Punctuation
"ppellu",
Appendix 2 Connectives
The main connectives are grouped below
according to the similarity of their
meaning with the three basic connectives
and, or, but. For information about their
use in sentences, you should look in a
good dictionary.
1 and A Listing:
1 Enumeration indicates a cataloguing of what is being said.
Most enumerations -belong to clearly defined sets:
I first, . . . > I furthermore. . . > Ifinally, . . . >
lone, . .. > Itwo, . . . > Ithree, . .. >
Ifirst(ly), ... > Isecond(Iy), . .. ) Ithird(ly), . . . )
above all
last but not least} mark the end of an ascending order
first and foremost
first and most important(ly) } mark the beginning of a descending order
I to begin/start with, . . .) I in the second place, . . . ) I moreover, . . . > Iand to conclude, - - . >
Inext, . . . ) Ithen, . . . ) I afterward, . . .) Ilastlylfinally,. -. )
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I
1 enumeration
A listing
{
a reinforcement
2 addition
b equation
1 and
transitionB
C summation
D apposition
E result
F inference
{
G reformulation
2 or
H replacement
(
I contrast
3 but
J concession
Appendix 2
2 Addition, to what has been previously indicated.
a Reinforcement (includes confirmation):
also
again
furthermore
further
moreover
what is more
then
in addition
besides
above all
too
as well (as)
,b. Equation (similarity with what has preceded):
equally
likewise
similarly
correspondingly
in the same wa.y
B Transition can lead to a new stage in the sequence of thought:
now
with reference/respect/regard to
regarding
let us (now) turn to . . .
as for
as to
often used when discussing something briefly
incidentally
by the way
come to think of it
spoken
language
indicates a digression
and an afterthought
talking/speaking of. . . (informal)
apropos. . . (formal)
that reminds me . . .
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to introduce
a digression
~
C Summation indicates a generalisation or summmg-up of what has
preceded:
in conclusion
to conclude
to sum up briefly
in brief
to summarise
altogether
overall
then
therefore
thus
D Apposition is used t6 refer back to previous sentences or to
parallel or related references:
i.e., that is, that's to say
viz. namely
in other words
or, or rather, or better
and
as follows
e.g. for example, for instance, say, such as, including, included,
especially, particularly, in particular, notably, chiefly, mainly,
mostly (of)
The relationships that these phrases can express include:
reformulation (see 2A below), exemplification and
particularisation.
E Result expresses the consequence or result of what was said
before:
so
therefore
as a result/consequence
the result/consequence is/was. . .
accordingly
consequently
now
then
because of this/that
thus
hence
for this/that reason
135
Jpendix 2
F Inference indicates a deduction from what is implicit in the
preceding sentence(s):
then
in other words
in that case
else
otherwise equivalent to a negative condition
if so/not -. .
that implies
my conclusion is
2 or A Reformulation, to express something in another way:
better
rather
in other words
in that case
to put it (more) simply
B Replacement, to express an alternative to what has preceded;
agam
alternatively
rather
better/worse (still) . . on
the other hand
the alternative is -. .
another possibility would be
3 but A Contrast, with what has preceded:
instead
conversely
then
on the contrary
by (way of) contrast. .
m companson
(on the one hand) . . - on the other hand - - .
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