Linking words 2 Explanations Reason ■ Because, as and since As and since have the meaning of because and can begin a sentence. As/since it was late, we decided to go home. In formal, written language we can use for to mean because, but it cannot begin a sentence. Peter has given up sailing, for he doesn't have the time. ■ Because of, on account of, due to and owing to We can use all these words in place of because of. Everyone was depressed on account of/due to/owing to the bad weather. Note this difference: Sue's success was due to her hard work. (noun + be + due to) Sue succeeded owing to her hard work. (verb + owing to) Text organizers Grammar 13 and the first part of this unit cover linking words that join clauses within a sentence. There are also linking words that join ideas across sentences and paragraphs. These are sometimes called 'text organizers' because they make clear the organization of what we say or write. They are more common in writing or formal speech. They usually come at the start of a sentence and have a comma afterwards, but can come after a comma in the middle of a sentence. ■ Sequencing We often number or order the points we are making. First (of all) Secondly NextThen Finally/lastly/last of all ... In narrative, the sequence of events can be introduced by: FirstThen After thatFinally/in the end ... m Adding We can introduce additional points. Furthermore Moreover In addition to As well as this Besides this ... ■ Giving opinions We can introduce personal opinions. Personally In my own opinion/view ... ■ Giving examples We can introduce examples. For example For instance ... We can also use such as to give an example, but it is not used at the beginning of a sentence. The factory produces electrical goods, such as food mixers and other kitchen appliances. 186 GRAMMAR 32 LINKING WORDS 2 Showing a result Grammar 13 gave some informal ways to show a result. Formal ways include: Consequently As a resultThus ... Making a contrast Grammar 13 gave some informal ways to make a contrast. Formal ways include: On the other hand However Nevertheless In contrast In comparison ... Summarizing We can summarize all the points we have made. In conclusion To sum up ... 187 FIRST CERTIFICATE LANGUAGE PRACTICE I 1 Underline the most suitable word or phrase in each sentence. a) Many people feel nervous about flying, and worry about the possibility of an accident. Furthermore/However, according to statistics, flying is actually safer than walking down the street. b) Our local supermarket no longer opens every day, as/on account of very few people live in our village. c) There are a number of objections to the planned motorway As well as this/First of all, the new road will destroy valuable farming land. In contrast/In addition to this, it will bring thousands of vehicles and tourists. As a result/For example, our peaceful way of life will be destroyed forever. d) We conducted a survey of accommodation in the town, and came up with some interesting results. The hotels we saw were rather expensive, and consequently/moreover the actual facilities on offer were not always impressive. Besides this/In contrast, there were many guest houses, offering just bed and breakfast, which were not only good value but also had much better rooms than the hotels did. Finally/Personally, I would recommend The Oaks, a particularly impressive guest house in Long Harbour Road. e) Owing to/Since the increased demand for parking spaces, the company has decided to enlarge the car park. Consequently/Nevertheless the exit road on the west side of the car park will be closed from Monday to allow building work to begin. 2 Put one suitable word in each space. a) .........-^H'.........conclusion, I would like to thank you all for your help. b) ......................it's too late to finish the work today, we'll come back tomorrow. c) The flight was delayed......................a result of the high winds. d) This radio is expensive, but......................the other hand it has very good reception. e) First......................all, 1 would like to welcome you to our annual dinner. f) John is a hard worker. As......................as this, he is completely reliable. g) Science has not entirely changed the way we think.......................instance, we still speak of the 'sunrise' although we know it is the Earth that is moving. h) Although this building project seems attractive, in my......................it would be a mistake to spend so much money on it. 188 GRAMMAR 32 LINKING WORDS 2 3 Decide which answer (A, B, C or D) best fits each space. Owning a car Owning a car has several advantages. (1)..........A.........you can go wherever you want, whenever you want. You don't have to depend on public transport and (2)......................you feel more independent. (3)......................you are able to give lifts to friends, or carry heavy loads of shopping. (4)......................, there can be problems, especially if you live in a city. Running a car can be expensive, and you have to spend money on items (5)......................petrol, servicing the car, and repairs. You might also have problems with parking, as everywhere is becoming more and more crowded with cars. (6)......................, most people feel that the advantages of owning a car outweigh the disadvantages. (7)......................most young people of my age start driving as soon as they can. (8)......................, I think that cars nowadays have become essential, but 1 also feel that they cause a lot of problems, (9)......................they are noisy and dirty. (10)......................, the large numbers of cars on the road means that most towns and cities are organized for the convenience of cars, and the needs of pedestrians are ignored. 1) A First of all 2) A however 3) A In contrast 4) A On the other hand 5) A as 6) A Finally 7) A For 8) A For example 9) A for example 10) A As a result B As a result B personally B In my view B To sum up B such as B Secondly B Next B Personally B however B Moreover C Personally C since C Besides this C Thus C owing to C However C As well as this C Nevertheless C thus C Personally D Besides this D as a result D However D For example D then D As D Consequently D In comparison D since D In comparison Key points Text organizers help readers and listeners to follow the development of an argument. Most of the expressions listed are formal in use. Because text organizers make links across sentences, their meaning is only clear when you study the ideas that come before and after them (the whole context). 189