Grammar Summary 1 Adjectives 1.1 Order of adjectives 1.2 Other points to notice about the order and use o( adjectives 1.3 Comparative and superlative of adjectives 1.3.1 Form 1.3.2 Adjectives of one syllabie 1.3.3 Adjectives of more than one syllable 2 Adverbs 2.1 Form 2.2 Comparative and superlative of adverbs 2.3 Position of adverbs and adverb phrases in sentences 2.4 Adverb or adjective? 3.4.1 Meals 3.4.2 Transport 3.4.3 Places 3 Articles 3.1 Indefinite article (a/an) 3.2 Definite article (the) 3.3 No article (0) 3.4 Changes of meaning 4 Conditional sentences 4.1 Conditional 1 4.2 Conditional 2 4.3 Conditional 3 5 Gerunds and infinitives 5.1 Verbs followed by the gerund (or -ing form) 5.2 Verbs followed by the infinitive 5.2.1 Verb + infinitive with to 5.2.2 Verb + direct object + infinitive with to 5.2.3 Verb + direct object + infinitive without to 5.3 Verbs followed by either the -ing form or the infinitive 5.4 Other uses of the -ing form 5.5 Other uses of the infinitive 6 Link words 6.1 Words expressing result 6.2 Words expressing reason 6.3 Words expressing purpose 6.4 Words expressing contrast 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Modals will shall would should may and might can 6.5 Words expressing time 6.6 Words expressing condition 6.7 Words expressing additional information or reinforcing a point 7.7 could 7.8 must 7.9 have (got) to 7.10 ought to 7.11 need 8 The passive 8.1 Most common forms 8.2 Use 8.3 Points to remember 9 Phrasal verbs 9.1 What is a phrasal verb? 9.2 Phrasal verbs which can be separated 9.2.1 Verb + adverb + object 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.4 9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 11 11.1 11.1.1 11.1.2 11.1.3 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.3 Phrasal verbs which cannot be separated Verb + adverb (no object) Verb + adverb + preposition + object Ordinary verbs + prepositions Verb check-list Verbs which can be separated Verbs which cannot be separated Prepositions among at between beyond by except for from in into 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 of off on out of since to under until/till up with/without Relative clauses Defining relative ciauses Relative pronouns in defining clauses Leaving out the relative pronoun in defining clauses Prepositions used with relative pronouns in defining clauses Non-defining relative clauses Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses Prepositions used with relative pronouns in non-defining clauses Participle phrases 12 Reported speech 12.1 Tenses 12.2.4 Verb + for + -ing form 12.1.1 Changes 12.3 Reporting requests and orders 12.1.2 No changes 12.4 Reporting questions 12.2 Reporting statements 12.5 Reporting suggestions 12.2.1 Verb (+ that) 12.6 Other points to notice about 12.2.2 Verb + pronoun/noun (+ toaf) reported speech 12.2.3 Verb + infinitive 13 Tense forms 13.1 Present forms 13.2.1 Past simple 13.1.1 Present simple 13.2.2 used to and would 13.1.2 Present progressive 13.2.3 Past progressive 13.1.3 Present perfect 13.2.4 Past perfect 13.1.4 Present perfect progressive 13.2.5 Past perfect progressive 13.2 Past forms 13.3 Talking about the future 14 Wishes, regrets and preferences 14.1 Wishes and reg rets 14.2 Preferences 15 Words that cause difficulties 15.1 have 15,2 rfoand.mate 15.1.1 Three basic uses of have 15.2.1 Meanings of do and mate 15.1.2 Other expressions using have 15.2.2 Other expressions using 15.1.3 had better do and make 1 Adjectives 1.1 Order of adjectives Several adjectives can be used before a noun in English. See p. 64 for a guide to the order in which they can be used. In general we put the more precise adjective nearest the noun but it is not always easy to decide which is the most precise; a possible order would be: (1) (2) (3) (4) determiner, your own opinions, dimensions (size, weight), age, (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) shape, colour, place of origin, material, purpose. Examples - a Chinese silk wedding dress - some short blue denim jeans - an awful old stair carpet 1.2 Other points to notice about the order and use of adjectives 1 He is 1 metre 30 tall. 2 I don't like living alone. 3 Its difficult to read. The instructions are easy to follow. 4a She was worried about him. He's a worried man. b It's all very worrying. It's a worrying lime for us all. 1 Adjectives describing measurement come after the measurement. 2 Some adjectives (e.g. alone, afraid, alive, awake) come after the verb, never before a noun. 3 Adjectives are often followed by an infinitive with to. 4a Adjectives ending in -ed come after a verb like be, seem or before a noun and describe a person's feelings. b Adjectives ending in -ing come after a verb or before a noun and describe the person or thing that produces those feelings. 1.3 Comparative and superlative of adjectives > pp. 75, 87 1.3.1 Form 1a London is bigger than Edinburgh. b This armchair is more comfortable than that wooden seat. 2a This is the biggest factory in the area. b I have many old books but this is the most interesting. We form the comparative by 1 a adding -er to one-syllable adjectives and to two-syllable adjectives ending in -y using more + two- and more than two-syllable adjectives + than We form the superlative by 2a adding -est to one-syllable adjectives and to two-syllable adjectives ending in -y using most + two- and more than two-syllable adjectives 3 He is as strong as a horse. He isn't as/so clever as his sister. 3 We use as + adjective + as for positive comparisons or nof as/so + adjective + as for negative comparisons. 1.3.2 Adjectives of one syllable 1 I f the adjective ends in two consonants (e.g. -ng, -rd, -rm) just add -er, -esf to the adjective: long longer longest hard harder hardest warm warmer warmest 2 If the adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant (e.g. -In, -at, -of) double the consonant and add -er, -est to the adjective: thin thinner thinnest fat fatter fattest hot hotter hottest 3 If the adjective ends in -e add -r, -st to the adjective: wide wider widest rude ruder rudest best worst most farthest Exceptions good better bad worse much/many more far farther (used to describe distance but can also mean 'additional, extra' e.g. further details, further information) old older oldest (used to describe objects and people) old elder eldest Notice elder, eldest are used before a noun to talk about family relationships but after a verb only older, oldest are possible (e.g. My older/elder brother. My brother is older than I am.) 1.3.3 Adjectives of more than one syllable 1 I've never been happier than I am now. Friday the 13th is the unluckiest day of the year in Britain. 2 Sally is cleverer/more clever than her brother. The commonest/most common cause of road deaths is careless driving. 3 I find science more interesting than the arts. He told me the most extraordinary story. If the adjective ends in y, change the y to / and add -er, -esf to the adjective. Exception friendly, more friendly, most friendly Some adjectives with two syllables can form their comparative and superlative in two ways: either by adding -(e)r, -(e)st or by using more, most. If the adjective has three (or more) syllables use more, most + the adjective. 2 Adverbs 2.1 Form quick slow quickly slowly careful carefully beautiful beautifully lucky luckily funny funnily Hegreeted me in a friendly way. She looked at me with a silly expression on her face. Adverbs can be formed from adjectives by adding -ly. The same rule applies to adjectives which end in /. To form adverbs from adjectives ending in y, change they to / and add -ly. To form adverbs from adjectives ending in -ly we use a phrase in a... way etc. 162 163 We arrived late. Stand up straight. He works very hard. Don't walk so fast. 5 Some adjectives do not change when they become adverbs. Notice lately and hardly have a different meaning from late and hard: lately = recently, hardly = scarcely. 2.2 Comparative and superlative of adverbs She drives more carefully than her husband. This is the most efficiently run office in the area. We arrived later than you. He walked the fastest. We usually form the comparative and superlative by using more, most + adverb. Adverbs with the same form as adjectives form their comparalive and superlative with -er, -est. Notice some exceptions to these two rules well better best badly worse worst little less least much more most 2.3 Position of adverbs and adverb phrases in sentences 1 He plays the piano well. 1 She sings beautifully. 2a She's very clever. 2a I can hardly read it. I don't quite understand. b I have enough money. b He's not tali enough to join the police force. They don't work hard enough. 3a 3a He's coming tomorrow. b Yesterday he was in Paris. b Today he's in Rome. 4a The magazine comes out 4a weekly. We are paid monthly. D b Every Saturday we go out. 5a He never buys cigarettes. 5a He always makes his own. b She is always late. c They have never offered to help. We are often being asked for c information of this kind. 6 Sit down there. He went to the cinema in the 6 High Street in town. Put the book on the table in the dining room. Adverbs which tell us 'how' usually come in the end position. Adverbs which tell us 'to what extent or to what degree' usually come in the middle position. Notice enough comes before a noun and after an adjective or adverb. Adverbs which tell us 'when' usually come in Ihe end position. They can come at the beginning for special emphasis. Adverbs which tell us *how often' usually come in the end position. Phrases like every week, every Saturday can also come at the beginning of a sentence. Adverbs which 'do nol tell us exactly when' usually come before a one-word verb. If the verb is be Ihey always follow the verb. If il is a two- (or more) word verb they come after Ihe first part of the verb. Adverbs and adverb phrases which tell us 'where' usually come in the end position with the direction (to the cinema) mentioned first and the places second (smaller places come before larger ones). 7 He reads his newspaper quickly at the breakfast table every morning. Adverbs and adverb phrases which tell us 'how, where and when' usually come in that order in the sentence (e.g. how = quickly, where = at the breakfast table, when = every morning). 2.4 Adverb or adjective? That smells good, butittastes awful. Notice If the verb is seem, appear, look, sound, feel, smell or fasfe we use an adjective not an adverb. 3 Articles 3.1 Indefinite article {a/an) 1 You will need a pen and an exercise book. 2 There was a terrible storm last night. The storm swept across the whole country. 3 A million people received our help last year. A few, however, were not so lucky. 4 We come to classes twice a week. 5 She's a lorry-driver. He's an old-age pensioner. Use with singular countable nouns 1 for more general meaning (it doesn't matter which pen). Notice an is used before a word that begins with a vowel sound (e.g. an hour, an heir, an MP but a university). 2 for a noun mentioned for the first time. Notice we use the for the second mention. 3 with numbers (e.g. a hundred, a thousand, a million) and fractions (e.g. a half, a quarter etc.). Notice a few (people) = some a Utile (help) = some but 0 few (people) = not many 0 little (help) = not much 4 to mean 'every' with expressions of time (e.g. once a year) 5 to describe a person's job or situation 3.2 Definite article {the) 1 Jane: A man phoned last night. Peter: Well, what did the man want? 2 Last night I read the book you recommended. 3 The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Use with most nouns for more specific meaning 1 to refer back to something already mentioned 2 when we know which one we are talking about 3 when we refer to only one of its kind 4 The computer has revolutionized office systems. 5 You can buy the best pizzas in town at Paulo's. 6 The British and the French agreed to build a channel tunnel. The strong should help the weak. 7 I live in the United States/the Netherlands/the Falklands/the West Indies/the Philippines/the USSR. 8 Paris lies on the Seine. The Atlantic separates Britain from America. It's very hot in the Mediterranean al the moment. 3.3 No article (0) 1 a 0 Museums are interesting 0 places. b 0 Sound travels very fast rn 0 water. 2a I live in 0 Rome/8 Percy Road/ 0 China/0 Jersey/near 0 Lake Windermere. b I shop at 0 Harrods. c I read 0 Punch. d The Queen lives in 0 Buckingham Palace. e He went to 0 Sheffield University. 3a 0 MAN FOUND DEAD ON 0 TUBE b Send 0 representative immediately. c ©Dinnerin0oven. 4 You will need a knife and 0 fork. Take a bucket and 0 spade to the beach. Notice these other uses of the 4 with singular countable nouns when they stand for an invention or a species 5 with a superlative {the first, the most enjoyable) 6 with adjectives as plural nouns 7 with the names of countries or groups of islands which are plural. Notice these exceptions The United Kingdom, The Yemen 8 with names of rivers, oceans and seas We do not use an article 1a with plural countable nouns and b with uncountable nouns when speaking about Ihe noun in general (e.g. food, music, love, etc.). Compare I haletfte sound of a drill (a particular sound). Notice a few uncountable nouns (e.g. advice, news, luggage, information, research) require a phrase like a/the bit of or a/the piece of to refer to a particular example of that noun: a bit of advice, the piece of news 2 with the names of most a towns/cities, streets, countries, single/individual islands, lakes b shops c magazines. Notice these exceptions The Economist, The Listener and most newspapers (The Times, The Daily Mail) d named buildings e named institutions (e.g. universities, schools, churches, etc.) 3a for newspaper headlines b for telexes (where the message should be as short as possible) c for personal, informal messages 4 before a second noun in a linked pair of nouns 3.4 Changes of meaning Sometimes the use (or omission 0) of the article changes the meaning c what we say. 3.4.1 Meals 1 A dinner was held last night at the Savoy. The dinner we had last night was marvellous. 2 Come to 0 dinner next Saturday. What time do you have O breakfast? 3.4.2 Transport 1 I hailed a taxi but it didn't slop. The six o'clock train was ten minutes early. 2 I always travel by 0 bus. I came here on 0foot. 3.4.3 Places 1 The meeting was held in a school. The workmen are busy in the church repairing the roof. 2 He's at 0 university (studying). She's in 0 hospital (receiving treatment). He's in 0 prison (serving a sentence). 1 a/an or the for particular meals 2 no article (0) for mealtimes in general 1 a/an or the for particular forms of transport 2 no article (0) for the form of transport in general 1 a/an or the to refer to a particular or known place or building 2 no article (0) to refer to the normal activity which goes on at a place or building 4 Conditional sentences Both if and unless (=if... not) can be used to introduce conditional sentences. The if-clause can come before or after the main (or 'result') clause. Notice we often use a comma when the if-clause comes first. 4.1 Conditional 1 D> pp. 51,57 1a If you take drugs regularly, you become addicted to them. b If you mix the colours blue and red, you get purple. 2 If you work hard, you'll get a good job. Unless you study, you won't pass your exams. I'll explain it again if you don't understand. Use t a for general facts th at do not change b for scientific facts. Notice the verbs in both parts of the sentences are in Ihe present. 2 mainly for future possibilities. Notice the verbs after/fand unless are in the present but the verbs in the 'result' part of the sentence are in the future. 164 165 4.2 Conditional 2 > pp. 51,57 1a If I had a million pounds, ] would buy a yacht. If he knew the answer, he wouldn't tell me. If Mary were here now, she would drive me home. b If I were you, I wouldn't marry him. 4.3 Conditional 3 1a We would have gone abroad for our holidays if we hadn't bought a new car. b If we hadn't set out late, we wouldn't have been caught in that traffic jam. c If you had listened to your father, you wouldn't have made so many mistakes. Use 1a for'unreal'or improbable conditions in the present or future b for giving advice and suggestions. Notice the verbs after/fare in the past but the verbs in the 'result' part of the sentence are in the present conditional. > p. 147 Use 1a for'unreal'or impossible conditions in the past b to imply regret c to imply criticism. Notice the verbs after if are in the past perfect but the verbs in the 'result' part of the sentence are in the perfect conditional. 5 Gerunds and infinitives [> pp. 85,89 5.1 Verbs followed by the gerund (or -ing form) I can't stand waiting in queues. We considered buying a house in the countryside, but we enjoy being in the town too much. I miss living abroad. Some verbs are followed by the ■ing form. Here are some of the most common: appreciate keep (on) avoid look forward to can't help mention can't stand mind consider miss deny object to dislike practise enjoy put off feel like risk finish suggest give up be/get used to imagine be worth 5.2 Verbs followed by the infinitive 5.2.1 Verb + infinitive with to We can't afford to have a holiday this year. We decided to get married. I managed to find another glass to replace the one I broke. Some verbs are followed by the infinitive with to. Here are some of the most common: afford forget appear happen arrange hope decide intend fail learn manage mean offer plan prepare promise refuse seem threaten 5.2.2 Verb + direct object + infinitive with to He advised me to take the exam. They persuaded me to stay for a few days. Some verbs have a direct object before the infinitive with to. Here are some of (he most common: advise persuade allow remind encourage teach force tell invite warn order 5.2.3 Verb + direct object + infinitive without to I heard him sing Figaro. He let me borrow his car. He made her tell him the truth. Some verbs have a direct object before the infinitive without to. Here are some of the most common: feel let hear make see Notice hear and see can be followed by the -ing form to express hearing or seeing only part of an action (e.g. compare / heard him singing in the bath.) 5.3 Verbs followed by either the -ing form or the infinitive > p. 89 1 He continued working/to work after everybody else had left the office. 2a I like going to the cinema. She loves dancing. b I like to go to the cinema once a week. She would love to dance the samba with you. 3a I began studying/to study in 1984. I started writing/to write when I was very young. b I began to see that something was wrong. I started to realize what he had done for me. Some verbs take either the -ing form or the infinitive. 1 Sometimes there is very little difference in meaning. 2a When verbs like can t bear, like, love, hate, prefer are followed by the -ing form, they tend to refer to a general activity b but when these verbs are followed by the infinitive, they tend to refer to particular occasions. 3a begin and start can take either the -ing form or the infinitive b but before a verb expressing understanding (see, realize) these verbs are followed by the infinitive. 4a He stopped smoking last week. He remembers going to the seaside when he was a child. He'll never forget eating raw fish for the first time. b He stopped the car to pick up a hitch-hiker. He remembered to post the letters. 5a I tried to phone you several times but I couldn't gel through. b 1 tried working in a shop, but it didn't interest me. 6 Your hair needs cutting. The garden wants weeding. 4 With verbs like stop, remember, not forget, regret a the -ing form refers to what happens/happened before the main verb e.g. first he smoked, then he stopped; first he went to the seaside, now he remembers the event; first he ate the raw fish, now he remembers the event (never forget = always remember) b the infinitive refers to what happens/happened after the main verb e.g. first he stopped the car, then he picked up a hitch-hiker; first he remembered aboul the letters, then he posted them 5 try can take either the -ing form or the infinitive but a it is followed by an infinitive when we mean 'to attempt to do something' b it is followed by the -ing form when we mean 'to experiment' 6 need and want can be followed by either the -ing form or the infinitive but when they are followed by the -ing form the meaning is always passive. 5.4 Other uses of the -ing form 1 Walking is good for you. 2 After walking to work, I'm ready to sit at my desk all day. 3 I'm afraid of missing the train. He's good at telling olhers what to do. The -ing form is also used as the subject of a clause or sentence following time words like after, before, when, since, while after certain adjectives + prepositions. Here are some of the most common: afraid of bad at bored with clever at fond of good at keen on interested in tired of worried about 5.5 Other uses of the infinitive 166 1 I came here to study English. 2 She doesn't know what to do next. Can you explain how to do it? The infinitive is also used 1 to express purpose D> GS 6.3 2 after who, what, where, how, whether and verbs like know, explain, wonder. Notice Ihe infinitive is nol used in this way after why. 6 Link words 6.1 Words expressing result 1a He was so tired that he went to bed early. He spoke Russian so well that everyone thought he was Russian, b It was such a difficult exam (that) he knew he wouldn't pass it. 2 It was late, so he decided to take a taxi home. 3a We have invested too much money in this project. Consequently, we are in financial difficulties. b His wife left him and, as a result, he became very depressed. 4 We feel, therefore, that a decision must be made. 1a so + adjective/adverb + that 4-clause b such + noun + that + clause Notice that can be left out in informal speech. 2 so + clause 3a as a result, consequently, can begin a new sentence. b and, as a result, is used in Ihe middle of a sentence. 4 therefore often comes in the middle of a sentence (it can also come at the beginning or the end). 6.2 Words expressing reason 1 Seeing that/Since/As we arrived late, all the best seats had been taken. 2 We couldn't find a good seat because all the best ones had been taken. 3 We were unable to go by train because of the rail strike. Many of the deaths of older people are due to heart attacks. 1 since, as, seeing that + clause often come before (he main clause. 2 because + clause usually comes after the main clause. 3 because of, as a result of, owing to and due to are followed by a noun or noun phrase. Notice due to means 'caused by' or'resulting from'. 6.3 Words expressing purpose 1 We came to the countryside to find some peace and quiet. Handle the flowers carefully in order not to damage them. 2 He chose this university so that/in order that he could study Physics. 1 We can use the infinitives to (do), in order (not) to (do), so as (not) to (do) to express purpose. Notice in order to, so as to are more formal. 2 so that, in order that + clause (often with the verbs can, could, might, would in the clause) 6.4 Words expressing contrast 1 Although/Even if/Even though ihe car is old, it is still reliable. 2a Despite/In spite of the rain, I went for a walk. b We enjoyed our walking holiday despite/in spite of the fact that it was firing. 1 although, even if, even though + clause can come before or after the main clause. Notice even though is more informal. 2a despite, in spite of+a noun or noun phrase or -ing form b despite the fact that, in spite of the fact that + clause 167 3a Buying a house is expensive. It is, however, a good investment. b It's a big decision to make, though. 4 John is very rich but/while/ whereas his friends are extremely poor. 5 On the one hand these computers are expensive. On the other hand they are exactly what we want. 3a however can come at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence. b though is more informal and comes at the end of a sentence. 4 but, while, whereas are usually placed in the middle of two main clauses expressing contrasting ideas. 5 on the one hand and on the other hand can be used at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of two sentences expressing contrasting ideas. Notice on the other hand is often used at the beginning of the second sentence. 6.5 Words expressing time 1 When/While/As I was driving along the road, I saw a terrible accident. He went out after he'd finished work. 2 Whenever/Every time I see him, he's driving a different car. 3 First he closed all the windows, then he locked the doors. Later he came back to check that everything was all right. 4 During/All through the summer we get a lot of visitors. It rained heavily throughout the night. 1 when, while, as and after + clause can come before or after the main clause. t> GS 5.4 2 whenever, every time + clause often come before the main clause for added emphasis. 3 first then, later, etc. can be used to introduce a chain of events. 4 during, all through and throughout are followed by a noun or a noun phrase. 6.6 Words expressing condition > p. 153 andGS4 1 Even if you are born rich, life is still difficult. You can borrow the car as long as you're careful with it! You can't come with me unless you promise to keep quiet. 2 I don't know whether you have met him or not. a They discussed whether they should attend the Games. b It depends on whether the government takes any action. The organizers will decide whether to impose fines. 3 Take this umbrella in case it rains. In case of emergency, break the glass. 1 even if, as long as and unless + clause can be used before or after the main clause. Notice unless means//... not 2 whether + clause usually comes after the main clause and is often used in indirect questions with.. . or not. a Certain verbs (e.g. discuss) can be followed by whether but not if. b After prepositions and before ro infinitives use whether but not if. t> GS12.4 3 in case + clause usually comes after the main clause. Notice in case of + noun (often used in formal written notices) 6.7 Words expressing additional information or reinforcing a point 1a I don't really want to go out tonight. Besides, there's a good film on TV. We are still wailing for the goods we ordered three months ago. Furthermore, we have been overcharged for our last order. b This theory about the origins of the universe is new. It is, moreover, extremely interesting. 2a The painting is not only valuable but also a work of art. She not only writes novels but (she) lectures as well. The house was not only large but (was/it was) also modern. b Not only is the restaurant superb but it is also expensive. 3 They robbed a bank as well as a post office. As well as being sent to prison, they were fined £2,000. 4 They like Indian food. I like Indian food too/as well. They aren't very generous people. They haven't got any friends either. 1 a besides, in addition (to that) and furthermore can be used at the beginning of the sentence following the first statement made. Notice besides is less formal, furthermore is more formal. b moreover can be used at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence which gives additional information. 2a not only. .. but also/as well can link two sentences, phrases or words to give additional information. Notice but also are used together when there is no subject pronoun and verb in the second part of the sentence, but ... also are separated when there is a verb in the second part of the sentence. b Not only can come at the beginning of the first part of the sentence to emphasize what the speaker is saying. In this case it is necessary to change the order of the subject and verb. In sentences like these the subject pronoun and verb in the second part of the sentence are usually mentioned and but.. . also are separated. 3 as well as can be followed by a single word, a phrase or. . ,-ing. 4 too, as well and not either are informal and usually come at the end of the sentence which gives additional information. 7 Modals > p. 137 will, shall, would, should, may, might, can, could, must, have (got) to, ought to, need 7.1 will 1 It'll be raining tomorrow. 2 Nothing on TV. I'll go to the cinema instead. 3 Will you sit down, please? I won't go with you. 4 I'll take you to the cinema. 5 Could you lend me £1 ? Of course I will. 6 You will start work at 8 on Monday. 7 I will not be treated in this way. will is used to express. 1 a prediction about the future E> GS13.3 2 a decision made while you are speaking 3 a request or a refusal 4 a promise 5 willingness 6 an order 7 determination 7.2 shall 1 We shall send you the t information as soon as possible. 2 Shall we go out for a meal 2 tonight? 3 3 Shall I carry that case for you? ^ 4 No pupil shall enter the library without the permission of a teacher. 7.3 would 1 I'd like :o go now. I wish you wouldn't smoke so much. 2 I would move house if I had the money. 3 Would you type this for me, please? 4 I'd rather have tea than coffee. 5 Will you ring me? He asked if I would ring him. 6 He would sing at the top of his voice in the shower. 7.4 should 1 I should really help my mother with the dishes (but I won't). 2 You should study harder. 3 We should be taking off in a few minutes. 4 I/We should be most grateful if you could send us a copy of the agreement. 5 I should have told you but I forgot. 7.5 may and might 1 He may/might be the new teacher. 2 He may/might be late this evening. 3 May/Might I ask a question? 4 They may/might have been held up in the traffic. shall is used to express the future (in the same way as will but only with / and we) a suggestion an offer Notice shall is occasionally used in very formal (written) orders. would is used to express 1 a wish (sometimes suggesting annoyance or disapproval) t> GS14.1 2 the'result'part of a conditional sentence > GS 4.2-4.3 3 a polite request • 4 a preference with rather l> GS 14.2 5 the reporting of will > GS12.1.1 6 a habit in the past E> GS 13.2.2 should is used to express 1 an obligation (which you may not carry out) 2 advice 3 something that will almost certainly happen as long as nothing unexpected prevents it 4 conditional sentences in more formal/written style with / and we 5 (with the perfect infinitive) an obligation which was not carried out may and might are used to express 1 a possibility now 2 a possibility in the future. Notice might is rather less certain than may in meaning. 3 asking for permission. Notice may is more common than might here and can is often used instead of may. 4 (with Ihe perfect infinitive) a possible explanation for something in the past 7.6 can 1 I can ski/drive a car. 2 I'm free tomorrow. I can drive you to the airport. 3 Can I go now? 4 Can you come to the party? 5 You can't be tired! You've been asleep all morning. 6 You can't have been pleased when you realized what he had done! 7.7 could 1 When I was six I could play (he piano. 2 When I was younger I could drive for hours without a break. 3 Could I use your phone? 4 Could he be right? 5 They couldn't have phoned her. She hasn't got a phone! 7.8 must > PP. 1 I must wash my hair tonight. 2 The work must be done before tomorrow. 3 You must not smoke in here. 4 You must be exhausted after all that work. 5 You must have been surprised when she said she was getting married. 7.9 have (got) to I've got to/have to be on time tomorrow. We haven't got to/don't have to do it if we don't want to. can is usea to express 1 knowing how to do something 2 being able to do something 3 asking for permission (used informally instead of may) 4 a possibility 5 an unlikely explanation for something now: It's impossible for you to be tired. 6 (with the perfect infinitive) an unlikely explanation for something in the past: It wasn't possible for you to be pleased. could is used to express 1 knowing how to do something i the past 2 being able to do something in the past 3 asking for permission (used informally instead of may but rather more polite than can) 4 a possibility (rather less strong than can) 5 (with the perfect infinitive) an unlikely explanation for something in the past: It wasn't possible for them to phone her. 13, 133 must is used to express 1 a personal obligation 2 what you consider to be someone else's obligation 3 (with not) what is not allowed 4 a reasonable conclusion made about something now 5 (with the perfect infinitive) a reasonable conclusion about something in the past have (got) to is used to express what is or isn't necessary [> GS 15.1.1 168 169 7.10 ought to 1 I really ought to go and see her, 2 I ought to have gone to see her but I was busy. 7.11 need 1 You needn't shout. I can hear you. You needn't bring anything to the party. 2 Need I lake anything to the parly? Need you ask that question? 3 You needn't have phoned. I already knew you were coming ought to is used to express 1 an obligation (which you may or may not carry out) 2 (with (he perfect infinitive) an obligation which you did not carry out. Notice ought to is rather stronger than should. 1 needn't \s used here as a modal verb. 2 There is also a question form, constructed in the same way as questions with can, must and other modals. 3 needn't with the perfect infinitive expresses the idea that something in the past was not necessary but it was done. Compare the ordinary verb need: You don 'tneed to shout I can hearyou. Do I need to take anything to the party? You didn't need to phone. I already knew you were coming. 8 The passive > p. 131 8.1 Most common forms !S has been will be was done seen reported This toy is made in Japan. A strange object has been seen in the night sky. Further information will be given in our next news bulletin. This report was prepared by a team of experts. 8.2 Use 1 Five policemen have been killed in Northern Ireland. The water was heated and a solution of chemicals was prepared. The passive is formed by using a form of be (is, has been, will be, was, etc.) + the past participle of the verb (made, seen, given, prepared). Notice when the person or thing responsible for the action (the agent) is mentioned, use the preposition by. The passive is used 1 when the agent is unknown (we may not know who killed the policemen) or not important. Notice the passive is often used in newspaper reports and in scientific experiments or processes. A description of ihe gunman was issued by the police. A charity record has been made by many famous names in the world of pop music. to make the object of the active verb more important (attention is drawn to the description of the gunman rather than who issued it) when the description of the agent is very long {many famous names in the world of pop music) 8.3 Points to remember 1 The painting should be finished by next week. 2 The decorating would have been finished but I ran out of paint. 3 Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Mother Teresa. 4 I got stuck in atrafficjam. She is getting married next month. 5a It is thought that he started the fire deliberately. b He is thought to have started the fire deliberately. 6a He had/got his hair cut yesterday. b He had his car stolen. 7 This job needs/wants doing. 1 Use Ďe + past participle after should and other modals. t> GS7 2 Use been + past participle after would have, should have, etc. > GS7 3 Verbs with two objects which can form two types of active sentence can also form two types of passive sentence. 4 get + past participle is sometimes used instead of be with passive meaning. Expressions with get are often used in informal English, 5 The passive is used in constructions with verbs like think, believe, say, consider, feel, find, know, understand a after the introductory it b before an infinitive 6 have/get something done expresses the idea of a arranging for or paying for somebody to do something for you. Notice gef is more informal. > GS "15.1,1 b experiencing something 7 After need, want the -ing form can be used with passive meaning. O GS5.3 9 Phrasal verbs 9.1 What is a phrasal verb? 1 A phrasal verb consists of a verb plus one or two words like on, up, into, etc. 2 The words which come after the verb are usually adverbs, although sometimes a phrasal verb can consist of verb + adverb + preposition. 3 When an ordinary verb is followed by a preposition, the meaning of the verb will usually be clear from the meanings of the individual parts of the verb. In the case of a phrasal verb, however, the parts of the phrasal verb together have one basic meaning which may be completely different from their individual meanings. Ordinary verbs + prepositions I looked into the mirror, She ran out of the room crying. Phrasal verbs The police are looking into the murder. We ran out of money on holiday. Notice these verbs change their meaning when adverbs and prepositions are added e.g. look into (a murder) = investigate; run out of (money) ■= have none left. 9.2 Phrasal verbs which can be separated 9.2.1 Verb + adverb + object 1 He looked a word up in the dictionary. He looked up a word in the dictionary. 2 He looked it up. 1 If the object is a noun it can come before or after the adverb. 2 If Ihe object is a pronoun (e.g. it) il must come before the adverb. 9.3 Phrasal verbs which cannot be separated 9.3.1 Verb + adverb (no object) They called in to see us. The plans fell through. They turned up unexpectedly. You cannot separate the two parts of the verb. You cannot say 'They called to see us in'. 9.3.2 Verb + adverb + preposition + object We dropped in on the Smiths. We dropped in on them. Even when the object is a pronoun it must come after the adverb + preposition. 9.4 Ordinary verbs + prepositions The boy ran over the bridge. He stepped over the puddle. He stepped over it. The object must come after the verb + preposition, even when it is a pronoun. 9.5 Verb check-list 9.5.1 Verbs which can be separated Back back. . . up -support Break break... off - bring to an end (talks, engagement) break... up - smash to pieces Bring bring... about-cause bring ... back - return bring... off - succeed in doing bring... out -make clear bring... round- help to regain consciousness bring ... up - raise (a family, a point) Call call... off call... up Carry carry... out Check check... in check... out/ over - cancel - lake people into the army ■finish, perform a duty -present your ticket/luggage at an airport - make sure everything is as it should be Clear clear.. Count count, count. count. Cross cross.. up - make tidy . in . out .up . out Cut cut... off cut... out cut... up Do do . .. out of Draw draw... out Get get... across get... back get... down Give give... away give... back give... out ■up give., Hand hand. hand... out hand ... over 170 - include - not include - add up - put a line through - disconnect (on the phone) -make unavailable - remove with scissors - divide into parts -cheat, stop from having - take money (out of the bank) - explain what you mean - regain possession of - write down - depress, make unhappy - belray, reveal - not take money for - return - distribute • stop doing - present something official - distribute ■give up Have have... in/ round Hold hold.,. back .up hold. Keep keep... back (from) keep ... down keep... in Knock knock... down/over knock... out - receive as guests - restrain - delay -rob (a ban I - not tell something, keep secre ■ retain in th< stomach - control - not allow oi - make fall - make lose consciousn Leave leave...out -omit Let let. .. down let . . . in let.. . off/out Look not keep a promise allow to con allow to go f look...over -examine closely look... up - search for a find in a boo or list Make make ... out - see clearly - write in certs details make... up - invent in ord to deceive - forget your differences/ anger Pass pass ... off - pretend to b« (as) Pay pay... back - return something borrowed Pick pick... up Pull - go and collet - take hold of and lift pull... down -demolish pull... off - succeed in doing Put put... off - not do something at the proper time, delay 171 put... on put... out put... through put.. .up Ring ring .. . back ring... up Rub rub... out Run run ,.. over See see... off Send send... in send. send. Set set.. set.. Show show. show. . .off .. on back up . in .off - switch on ■ dress in • switch off - connect people on the telephone - raise the price of • phone again - phone -make disappear - hit and knock down - say goodbye to - present something/ someone official -post - forward by post - halt progress - organize, establish - bring in - display - boast aboul lake... back take. . in take... on take . .. over take... up Think think... over Throw throw... out Try try. . on - withdraw what you said - return an object - deceive - absorb, understand - accept responsibility for - gain control of - start a hobby -consider carefully -get rid of - check clothes for size - see if it works try. . . out Turn turn ... back - refuse someone entry turn ... down - reject an offer - lower sound (of TV, radio, etc.) turn ... into - change into something different . off - switch off . on - switch on .up -make louder lurn. turn. turn. Wear wear. catch up with -reach the fall through -not succeed same level as (e.g. plans) . out - Stick stick.. .out -putupwilh Take take... away - remove - subtract make exhausted/ useless Work work... out - solve a problem - draw up a plan 9.5.2 Verbs which cannot be separated Ask ask after ask for Back back out of Break break down break into break out break up • inquire how someone is getting on ■ request -withdraw from an agreement - stop working (e.g. a car) - collapse emotionally or physically - enter by force - escape (e.g. from prison) -separate (e.g. husband and wife) Burst burst in(to) Call call for call (in) on Care care about care for Carry carry on Catch catch on - enter suddenly -require, demand - pick someone up (at iheir home) -visit - take an interest in, love - like, look after - continue - become fashionable Check Feel check in -register at a feel like - want to do hotel feel up to -be capable of check out - leave a hotel check up (on) - make sure Get everything is get along (with; - have a good correct relationship Clear with clear off -disappear get away - escape quickly get away with - not be clear up -stop raining get by punished for -survive, Come manage come across -find by get in(to)/ - enter/leave a accident out car come by -pass get off/on - board/leave a come down -be reduced in train/bus price get on with - continue doing come forward - appear - present oneself - have a good relationship with come off - succeed get out of - escape or come out - appear (sun, flowers) avoid (work, a meeting, etc.) come round - visit - regain consciousness get over - recover from (an illness, surprise, etc.) come up - face or meet a get round to - find the time to against problem do something come up with - produce, find get through - succeed in Count doing count on -rely or depend on -spend, reach the end of - manage to live Cut through culdown (on) - reduce get together - meet expenses get up -get out of bed Do Give do away wilh -getrid of, give in - surrender abolish do without -manage if you Go haven't got go after - pursue, follow something go down - fail (prices) Draw go down with - become ill wilh draw up - stop (e.g. cars go in for -lake up an etc.) interest - enter Drop competitions drop in (on) -visit without an gooff -become bad arrangement (e.g. food) drop out - not lake part in go on -continue at the last go out - stop burning, minute shining (of Face light) face up to - confront problems go out with - go to a theatre/ cinema/ restaurant, etc. Fall with a boy/ fall for - be very girlfriend strongly go over/ -examine attracted to through - be deceived by go through -suffer, endure fall in with - agree to go up - rise, increase fall out - have an argument go with - match (e.g. colours) Hang hang aboul/ around hang back hang on hang onto hang up Hold hold on hold onto Join join in join up Keep keep back - stand about doing nothing - hesitate -wait - keep a grip on something -put the telephone receiver down (in anger) -wait - not let go - take part in - enter armed forces - stay away from (danger) - stay away from -do something more than once -maintain, not allow to end or fall keep up (with) - go at the same speed or pace Live live on keep off keep on keep up live through live up to Look look after look around look for took in on look into look out (for) look through look up to Make make for make up for Miss miss out (on) Pass pass away pass out Pull pull in/up - support oneself by means of - survive a difficult period - do what is expected of you - take care of - inspect, survey - search for - visit unexpectedly - investigate - take care - examine, inspect - respect - go towards - compensate for - not lake the opportunity lo do -die - lose consciousness -stop (e.g. cars) pull out Put put in for put up with Ring ring off Run run away/ off with run into run out (of) run over/ through See see about/to -move oul(to overtake cars elc.) -apply for -stand for, tolerale -put the phone down - elope - take something which does not belong to you - encounter, meet -collide wilh - have no more - read or examine quickly arrange, attend to see through - not be deceived by Send send for Set set off/out Sit sit for Stand stand back stand by stand for stand in for stand out stand up for stand up to Stick stick to Stop slop off (at) stop over Take take after take down take off take to - ask lo come and see - depart/leave - take an exam - not come too near -stick to what you say - give help, support -mean - lolerate - act as a substitute for - be noticeable -act in support of -resist - not change course - break your journey - spend ihe nighl - resemble - write down - leave the ground -like straight away take up Think think of Turn turn back -occupy (lime or space) -begin (a hobby) - have an opinion about - remember -go back where you started from turn out turn up Wear wear off Write write away (for) - be Ihe resul the end - arrive unexpected - disappear (effects of something) - send away (for) by post 10 Prepositions 10.1 among L> p. 149 1 Divide these sweets among the children. 2 The workers talked among themselves as they waited to see the boss. 3 He was the only one among all my friends who supported me. 10.2 at 1 The train left at midnight/8.30p.m. 2a I'll meet you at the corner of the street. b The train stops at Birmingham. I studied at London. 3 Look at this new car. Aim at the centre. Useful expressions at all costs/ events af any rate at church/the hairdresser's/ school at Christmas/ Easter at ease af first (sight) Use for a group of things to express 1 'with a share for each of 2 'with one another' 3 'in the group/company of Use to express 1 an exact point of time 2a an exacl position or place b with the name of a city, town or village if we are interested in a particular point or activity in it rather than the whole place 3 'in the direction of at hand at peace/war astonished at af home/the af present baa at office af sea clever af af last afalime good af af least (when) shocked af af a loss/a at the same shoot af profit time (as) shout af at lunch af times smile/laugh af af night af the weekend surprised at af once af work 172 173 10.3 between > p. 149 1 The bank is between the post office and the baker's. 2 The ferry sails between Dover and Ostend. An agreement was made between the three super-powers. 3 Just between you and me, I think he's awful. 4 I can't choose between these three dresses. 10.4 beyond 1 The farm lies beyond that field. 2 His story is beyond belief. She is beyond help.- 3 The success of the plan was beyond anything we had hoped for. 10.5 by 1 This book was written by Charles Dickens. 2 This model was made by hand. 3 The bank is just by the Post Office. 4 By next year I'll have finished this book. Useful expressions by accident by all means by air/bus/car/ by chance plane/sea/ by day/nigh I ship/train (and by (doing) other means by far of transport) by mistake 10.6 except 1 All the boys had pens except one. 2 The holiday was excellent, except for the rain. 3 He's a good student, except that he's always late. Use to express 1 a position in the middle (with things or people on two sides) 2 bringing two or more things or people together 3 sharing something together (a secret) 4 either one thing or another Use to express 1 'further than' (distance) 2 'outside the understanding or the reach of 3 'more or better than' Use to express 1 who does/did/will do an action 2 how something is/was/will be done 3 closeness or nearness to 4 'not later than' by post by sight by surprise by yourself (alone) amazed by-astonished by* impressed by surprised by* upset by * = or at Use to express 1 'excluding' 2 'apart from' + noun 3 'apart from the fact that' + clause 10.7 for 1 This is for you. 2 We've lived here for three years. 3 We walked for several rriles. 4 Are you for or against nuclear weapons? 5 What did you do that for? 6 Let's go out for a meal. 7 They left for America this morning. Useful expressions for ever once and for goodness' for all sake for a while/ for heaven's time sake Use to express 1 intended to belong to' 2 length of time > GS 13,1.3 3 distance 4 'in favour of 5 reason 6 purpose (+ noun) 7 movement towards anxious for as for ask for care for pay for reason for responsible for search for 10.8 from 1 We travelled from Vienna to Paris by train. 2 He works from 9 till 5. 3 Prices start from £5. 4 I can't tell one from the other. Use to express 1 place of origin 2 a starting point in lime 3 a starting point in quantity 4 separation Useful expressions from A to Z from morning to away from from beginning to end from head to toe night from lime to time apart from hear from prevent from (doing) suffer from 10.9 in 1 They're in the kitchen. 2 We got married in March/winter/1985. 3 I'll be back in an hour. 4 He's in banktng/the local police force/a mess. Useful expressions ft? all in general in any case in half in bed in a hurry in common in ink/pencil In danger in love in debt in a loud voice in difficulties in the morning in the end In my opinion in fact in other words Use to express 1 place 2 a point during a longer period of time-weeks, months, seasons, years and centuries 3 'within a certain time' 4 a job/profession/situation in particular in prison in private in public in secret in sight in spite of in slock In tears in time mi turn in a way in a sense dressed in get in interested in succeed in take part/'n 10.10 into They came into the room. Useful expressions bump into crash into get into (trouble) go into 10.11 of 1 The cover of this book is attractive. 2 He's one of my best friends. 3 a ton ] [ bricks a pint of milk a pound J I butter 4 He died of starvation. 5 a man of 40/theCityof London/made of gold Useful expressions ahead of enough of because of everyone of by means of example of cure someone of explanation of dieo/ hundreds of dozens of in case of 10.12 off 1 A tile has come off the roof. 2 Our house is off the High Street. Useful expressions off duty off limits off work 10.13 on 1 The book is on the table. 2 I'll see you on Saturday morning/Christmas Day/your birthday. 3 What's on TV tonight? There's a good film on at the cinema. 4 He's written a book on insects. Useful expressions on business on holiday on duty on purpose on time on sale on foot on the whole on the other hand Use to express movement towards jump into run into throw into walk info Use to express 1 'belonging to' 2 'from among' 3 measure 4 cause 5 description in front of instead of lack of on account of on behalf of out of proof of remind someone of several of think of typical of Use to express 1 movement away from 2 'at a distance from' get off (the bus) take off (your coat) Use to express 1 contact (on the surface of) 2 lime-a particular day 3 what entertainment is being offered 4 what something is about agree on depend on congratulate have an effect someone on on 10.14 out of 1 She ran out of the house. 2 Two out of five children have learning problems. 3 I copied the recipe out of the newspaper. 4 The dress was made out of a lace curtain. Use to express 1 movement away from 2 'from among' (with ratios) 3 place of origin 4 the material something is made from Useful expressions out of breath out of control out of danger out of date oof of order out of practice out of the question (impossible) out of reach out of slock ouf of work 10.15 since 1 I hadn't seen him since 1978. 2 Since he had'flu, he decided not to go to work. Use to express 1 a starting point for actions and situations which continue up to the moment of speaking C> GS 13.1.3 2 'because' > GS6.2 10.16 to 1 We're going to Paris. 2 It's a quarterto 12. 3 We'll be in the office from 5 to 6. 4 He won by 2 games to 3. I prefer sleeping to working. Useful expressions according to in order to in addition to so as to duefo owing to Use to express 1 'in the direction of 2 before (in lime) 3 'until' 4 comparison 10.17 under 1 The box is under the stairs. 2 Please don't sweep the dust under Ihe carpet. 3 The bridge is under repair. Useful expressions under control underneath (preposition) = under 10.18 until/till 1 I'll keep the ring until we meet again. 2 Stir the mixture until it thickens. Use to express 1 'beneath' 2 'beneath' (with movement) 3 'in the process of under orders under oath (in a court of law) Use to express 1 up to a certain time 2 'up to the point or degree when' 174 175 10.19 up Don't run up the stairs. He wenl up to the next class. Useful expressions up-to-date (modern) uphill 10.20 with/without 1 Be patient with the children. 2 He hit the burglar with a hammer. 3 You'll have to go with/without me. 4 A room with/without a view. Useful expressions with best wishes angry with with/without - 1 - Use to express movement to a higher place ups and downs (good times and bad ones) Fed up (bored or unhappy) Use to express 1 'as regards' 2 instrument 3 accompanying/not accompanying 4 having/not having disgusted with trembling with imnrpQQPri with ifoar^ do without impressed with (fear) difficulty filled with pleased with (what's) wrong without any fuss green with envy shivering with with(7) with love (cold) with pleasure have difficulty agree with with 11 Relative clauses 11.1 Defining relative clauses > pp. 5, 99 Is that the man who wants to buy your car? These clauses are necessary in order to complete the meaning of a sentence. They identify somebody or something. No commas are used. 11.1.1 Relative pronouns in defining clauses 1 a The person who deals with that isn't here at the moment. The person that interviewed me was a nice sort of fellow. b The person who/whom/that you want is out of the office. c The man whose address you've asked for has left the firm. 2a The instructions which come with this machine are impossible to follow. The book that you lent me was very difficult to read. These relative pronouns are used 1 for people a who/that- as the subject of Ihe verb in the clause b who/whom/that-as the object of the verb in the clause {whom is more formal) c whose - meaning 'belonging lo' 2 for Ihings a which/that - as subject or object of the verb in Ihe clause. Notice what can be used lo express 'the thing which/that' (e.g. II was difficult to believe what you told me.) 11.1.2 Leaving out the relative pronoun in defining clauses The man (who/whom/thaf) I was meeting was an important client. The relative pronoun can be left out when it refers to the object of the verb in the clause. Notice the relative pronoun cannot be left out when it refers to the subject of the verb in the clause e.g. The man who came to meet me was an important client. 11.1.3 Prepositions used with relative pronouns in defining clauses 1 The man who/that I was talking to is my uncle. 2a The person to whom I was addressing my comments does not seem to be listening. b The problem about which we had so much discussion has been solved. 1 The preposition comes at the end of the clause in informal speech and writing. 2a The preposition comes at the beginning of the clause in formal speech and writing. b Notice the relative pronoun cannot be left out in sentences like these even though it is the object of the verb in the clause. 11.2 Non-defining relative clauses [> PP. 5, 86 I've just met Mr Watts, who wants to buy your car. These clauses give further information, which could be left out, about the sentence. Commas are used. 11.2.1 Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses 1a The members of the expedition, who had been away from home for six months, said they were proud of their achievements, b The candidates, who/whom we met for the first time yesterday, are all preparing their speeches for the debate tomorrow. c A car manufacturer, whose name I have forgotten, has invented an electric car. 2a The report, which was drawn up by a special committee, stales that more needs to be done in the inner city areas. b He had been in prison, which was a fact nobody had realized. These relative pronouns are used 1 for people a who - as the subject of the verb in the clause b who/whom - as the object of the verb in the clause c whose - meaning 'belonging to' 2 for ihings a which - as the subject or object of ihe verb in Ihe clause b which - lo give further information about the whole main sentence Notice the relative pronoun cannot be left out in non-defining clauses and that cannot be used to replace the relative pronoun. 11.2.2 Prepositions used with relative pronouns in non-defining clauses The organization, to which we owe so much, has announced a further contribution to our appeal. Prepositions usually come at the beginning of the clause as the use is rather formal. 11.3 Participle phrases In participle phrases the relative pronouns and the auxiliary verb(s) are left out. 1 The boy (who is) sitting in that corner has been there all morning. The bricks (which have been) used to build this church were specially made. 2 Simone de Beauvoir, (who was) well known for her fight for women's rights, died in 1986. These phrases can be 1 defining or 2 non-defining 12 Reported speech > pp. 29,37,54 12 midday 9 a.m. Mr Green phoned Ohi What did he say? ť 3 He said he'd i put the papers ! in the post. 12.1 Tenses 12.1.1 Changes Verbs used in direct speech often change their tense in reported speech, especially when the 'reporting' verb is in the past (e.g. said). Direct speech Change Reported speech 1 'IV/pofthe 1 will 1 He said he would put the letters in to letters in the post. the post.' would 2 'I work lor 2 work 2 She said she worked for an an insurance lo insurance company. company.' worked 3 'We can'r 3 can't 3 They said they couldn't borrow any to borrow any more money from more from couldn't the bank. Ihe bank.' 4 'We've moved 4 have moved 4 They said they had moved lo to a bigger to a bigger house. house.' had moved 5 'I most pay 5 must 5 She said she had to pay the the gas bill.' to gas bill. had to 12.1.2 No changes Some verb tenses used in direct speech do not change in reported speech. The 'reporting' verb is often in the present tense. Direct speech Reported speech The verbs do not normally change when 1 reporting a present state of affairs e.g. 'The cost of living here is high.' 2 reporting things which are always true e.g. 'It's always cold at this time of year.' 3 reporting something which we believe (or someone believes) will happen e.g. 'They're going to sack 300 workers next week.' 4 they are the modal structures would, could, might, ought and should, e.g. 'You might be mistaken.' 1 The reporter says/said thai I cost of living here is high. 2 Mary says it's always cold a time of year. 3 The union representative sa they are going to sack 300 workers next week. 4 She said (that) he might be mistaken. 12.2 Reporting statements 12.2.1 Verb (+ that) (e.g. say, claim, admit, explain, insist, agree, complain deny, reply) 'I'm an art student.' 'I don't know you.' 'I was lying.' 'I'm hot.' Notice admit and deny can also be followed by the -ing form She said (that) she was an a student. He claims he doesn't know She admitted she had been lying. He explained (that) he was hot. 12.2.2 Verb + pronoun/noun (+ that) (e.g. tell) 'I'm an art student.' She told him (that) she was £ art student. 12.2.3 Verb + infinitive (e.g. offer, refuse, agree, promise) I'll take you lo the dance.' He offered to take her to the dance. 12.2.4 Verb -I- for + -ing form (e.g. apologize, thank) 'I'm sorry I trod on your fool.' 'Thank you for doing the shopping.' 176 She apologized for treading on his foot. He thanked her for doing the shopping. 177 12.3 Reporting requests and orders 'Close the door, please.' 'Please don't shout.' 'Sit, Rover.' 'Don't move.' 'Attack.' He asked me to close the door. She asked them not to shout. The boy told his dog to sit. The policeman ordered the burglar not to move. The Captain ordered his soldiers to attack. 12.4 Reporting questions Remember to change the word order in a reported question to subject followed by verb. 'What time is it?' 'How much money do you need ?' He asked what time it was. She asked how much money I needed. Remember to use /for whether if there is no question word. 'Are you tired?' 'Do you want the car or not?' He asked it I was tired. She wondered whether I wanted the car or not. 12.5 Reporting suggestions > p.117 suggest can be followed by an -ing form or that + should + infinitive. 'Let's go home.' He suggested going home. He suggested that they should go home. 12.6 Other points to notice about reported speech Direct speech 1 The pronoun often changes e.g. Tve washed the dishes.' 2 Words like tomorrow change to words not directly related to present time e.g. 'I'll do it tomorrow.' a 'todays b 'yesterday'^ c 'next week/year' etc. —> d 7asf week/year' etc. -» e 'now'—* f 'here'^r g 'this' (in lime expressions) e.g. 'this week'~+ 3 Other changes are a 'this, these, that, those' (as adjectives) -» b 'this, these, that, those' (as pronouns) 4 Some words I ike please and now disappear e.g. 'Please come in.' 'Now what do you want to talk to me about?' Reported speech 1 She said she had washed the dishes. 2 He said he would do it the following day/the next day. a the same day/that day b the day before/the previous day c the following week/year etc. d the previous week/year etc. e then f there g that (e.g. that week) 3a the b it, they/them 4 He asked her to come in. She asked him what he wanted to talk to her about. 13 Tense forms 13.1 Present forms 13.1.1 Present simple 1 We go out every Saturday night. He never gives me presents. 2 He lives in Greece. The earth travels round the sun. 3 Jane: I don't like big cities. They smell of cars. Peter: I know what you mean. 4 First you check the gears and handbrake, then you switch on the engine. 5 A gorilla goes into a bar and asks for a drink.... The Pope visits Tokyo today. Use 1 for something which happens regularly or which is a habit (often with adverbs of time e.g. always, usually, etc.) 2 for something which remains true for a long time or for a scientific fact 3 with verbs not normally used in any of the progressive forms (believe, understand, imagine, suppose, hear, see, taste, love, hate, need, want, prefer, seem, appear, belong, deserve). Notice feel can be used either in the simple or progressive forms e.g. I feel ill/am feeling ill. 4 to give instructions (more friendly and personal than the imperative Check, switch on ...) 5 to describe events in jokes, stories or news items to make them seem more dramatic r> GS 13.3 for the future use of the present simple 13.1.2 Present progressive 1 Look, they're coming out of the 1 cinema now. The standard of living in this 2 country is slowly rising. 2 She's always borrowing money from me. 3 It's always raining here. 3 A man Is standing on the pavement when suddenly a spaceship lands. Use for an event in progress at the present time- with always to show surprise or disapproval when an action is repeated to set the scene in a joke or a story and describe events which have already begun but which are not complete > GS 13.3 for the future use of the present progressive :'.>.'tV:,':>'3i 13,1.3 Present perfect > pp. 41,53 1 I've seen that film. I've just seen him. I haven't finished yet. I've never been there. 2 She's been a widow for about six months/since last year. 3a I can't write because I've broken my arm. b Look at the mess you've made. 4 This is the third lime he's taken his driving test. This is the worst film I've ever seen. Use 1 for an event which happened at an indefinite time in the past. Compare / saw that film last week where the time reference is definite. Notice adverbs which express indefinite times are often used: already, just, yet, often, never, so far, still, etc. 2 for an event which began in the past and is still going on now. Notice we use for to talk about the length of time f> GS 10.7; we use since to talk about when the event started > GS 10.15 3 for an event which a is finished but which still affects the present (e.g. compare The President died and The President has died (so we must make various arrangements) b has a result which can be seen in the present (e.g. compare What have I drawn? and What did I draw?) 4 after expressions like f rVref, second... This That It is the 13.1.4 Present perfect progressive jbesf, worst. most interesting \ only... > p. 53 Use 1a We've been living here for six years/since 1981. b We've been standing at this bus stop for half an hour in the pouring rain. 2 I've been staying with my cousin for the last week. 3 Look at the mess you're in! What on earth have you been doing? I can see that you've been decorating. The house looks lovely! 1 a for an activity which began in the past and is still going on (to emphasize the length of time taken by the activity) b (Notice it often shows anger, surprise, etc.) 2 to describe a temporary arrangement which may still be going on or which may just have finished 3 for an activity which was going on, which has now finished and the result of which is still evident. (This, too, often shows anger, surprise, etc.) 13.2 Past forms 13.2.1 Past simple > pp. 41,53 1 Last night I went to a concert. The last time I saw Maria was three years ago. 2 Jane: Did you have a nice time in Paris? Peter: Yes, we did. 3 The thief went into the bank, pulled out a gun and pointed it at the cashier. 4 When I was at school, I got up every day at seven o'clock. Use 1 when a definite point in tin-mentioned when talking at the past 2 when the event took place time the speaker is aware t does not mention 3 for a number of events whi took place one after anotht the past 4 to describe a past habit r> GS 13.2.2. 13.2.2 used to and would 1 a I used to smoke cigars but now I prefer cigarettes. He used to be very fat but he's lost a lot of weight. b I didn't use to go to the theatre but I try and go about once a month now. I never used to like him but I do now. c Did you use to do sport at school? Didn't you use to be much thinner? 2 He would keep telling me what to do! used to only exists in the pj form. Use it to express 1a a habit or a state in the past t> GS 13.2.1 b something which did not ha in the past but which has nc become a habit or stale. No the negative form (e.g. / use not to go to the theatre) is becoming less common in speech but is still found in fc or written English. c an inquiry about a habit or si in the pasl Compare the expressions oe/g-efuseo'to: I'm used to getting up early. I was used to getting up ear You 'II soon get used to drink tea! I soon got used to working s hard. Notice after be/get used to < use the verb + -ing Use would 2 Tor a habit or repeated event the past which is now finishei and which shows the speake attitude to the event (anger, irritation, etc.) t> GS7.3 178 179 13.2.3 Past progressive 1a I was driving along the motorway when l had a puncture. b ll was six o'clock and darkness was falling. 2 I was digging the garden while John was painting the kitchen. 3 He was coming to dinner but he had to go away on business. 13.2.4 Past perfect 1 I went back home because I'd forgotten my keys. I was sure I hadn't seen him before. By 1986 Bob Geldof had raised millions of pounds for charity. 2 I had scarcely/hardly put the phone down when the bell rang. No sooner had I left Ihe house than it started to rain. Use 1a for an event which was i n progress when another event happened b to set the scene and provide the background for a story 2 for two (or more) events which were in progress at the same time in the past 3 for an event which had been arranged but which did not happen Use 1 for an event which happened before another in Ihe past (first I forgot my keys, later I went back home) 2 with scarcely/hardly + when or no sooner + than. Notice these words (scarcely, hardly, no sooner) are often put at the beginning of the sentence to emphasize that one event happened almost immediately after the other (notice the word order). 13.2.5 Past perfect progressive They'd been studying for hours when they suddenly realized it was midnight. He knew they hadn't been paying attention during the lesson. Use to emphasize the continuous nature of an action or activity which happened before another in the past 13.3 Talking about the future be going to I'm going to wash my hair. It's going to snow. I'll see you tomorrow. Term starts on Monday. I'm meeting Ihe boss at 10. This lime tomorrow I'll be sitting my exam. I'll have finished it by 4 o'clock. We'll have been living here for ten years next spring. They're about to announce the election results. He's on the point of changing his job. 180 future simple present simple present progressive future progressive future perfect future perfect progressive be abouf fo or be on the point of 1a I'm going to write some letters. b Look at those black clouds. I think it's going to rain. The work is not going to be easy. 2 Tomorrow will be fine and sunny. We shall expect you next week. 3 Easter is early this year. The match begins at 3.30. When he comes, I'll lei! you. 4 We' re flyi ng to Spain next week. I'm taking my driving test tomorrow. 5 This lime next week I'll be swimming in Ihe Mediterranean. 6 They'll have done their homework by lomorrow. 7 He'll have been working for the bank for 30 years next summer. 8 The plane is on the point of taking off. Nick was just about to put the money in his pocket. 1 Use be going to for a an intention b an indication that something is probable 2 Use fulure simple (will/shall) to make a prediction about the future. > GS7.1 Notice shall is only used for / and we. t> GS7.2 3 Use present simple for future events on a timetable or a fixed programme. Notice when can be used wilh Ihe present simple for an event in the fulure. 4 Use present prog ressive for a definite arrangement, plan or appointment. 5 Use future progressive for an event which will be in progress at a certain time in the future. 6 Use future perfect for an event which will be over not later than a certain lime in the future. 7 Use future perfect progressive for something still in progress but which will be complete nol later than a certain time in the (uture (often used to emphasize Ihe length of lime involved). 8 Use be abouf fo or be on the point of for an event which is or was just going lo take place. 14 Wishes, regrets and preferences 14.1 Wishes and regrets o pp. 43, 47 1 I wish I were rich! If only we could see each other more often! I wish we didn't live in this terrible place. 2 I wish you wouldn't make so much noise! If only they would stop thai terrible noise! I wish it would stop raining! 3 I wish I had never married him. If only I had studied harder at school. I wish you hadn't told me your secret. 1 These examples express wishes (often suggesting lhat Ihe speaker is sorry about something - I'm sorry I'm not rich). Notice the 'past' form of the verbs (were, could see, didn't live) after / wish and if only as wilh conditional 2. [> GS4.2 2 These examples express wishes for a change in the fulure and often suggest that the speaker is angry or dissatisfied about (or tired of) the present situation. > GS 7.3. 3 These examples express wishes or regrets about the past (/ wish I had studied harder but I didn't]). Notice the past perfect is used in the same way as conditional 3 sentences. > GS4.3 14.2 Preferences 1a I like the summer better than the winter. b I prefer soft drinks to alcohol. 2a I'd rather have a snack than a take-away meal. b I'd rather not go to the football match, if you don't mind. 3 I would rather you stayed at home tonighl. I think it's going to snow. I'd rather you didn't see him again. 1 a like.. . better than . .. and b prefer. . . to . . . express general preferences. 2a 'drather + infinitive without fo . .. than ... expresses either a general preference or a preference for a particular occasion ('this is what I usually prefer' or 'this is what I would like now'). Notice'd prefer expresses a preference for a particular occasion (e.g. I'd prefer (to have) a glass of wine now). b 'd rather not + infinitive without to expresses the fact thai you would prefer not to do something which has been suggested. 3 would rather + (you elc.) + past tense suggests that you would be happier if someone did or didn't do something. Notice Ihe 'unreal' present is expressed by a 'past' form of the verbs stayed, didn't see. t> GS4.2 15 Words that cause difficulties have, make and do 15.1 have 15.1.1 Three basic uses of have 1 She has bought a new car. He said he had seen the film. 2 I have (got) to be ready at 6.30. You don't have to (haven't got to) do it if you don't want lo. Do I have to (Have I got to) go? 3 They're having the house decorated. Did he have his hair cut yesterday? I didn't have the curtains made. I made them myself. 4 I've got a headache. Have you got a big family? I haven't got any brothers or sisters. have can be used 1 as an auxiliary verb 2 lo express what is or isn't necessary. Notice have got to can be used lo express the same idea as have to. > GS7.9 3 to express Ihe idea of arranging for or paying somebody to do something for you. Notice the object of the sentence comes between have and Ihe past participle. [> GS 8.3 4 with got to express a condition or state (less common in the past tense and often suggesting the idea of 'possession'). Notice have got is now more common in statements than Ihe rather formal / have four brothers, but question forms and negatives with do and have are commonly used (e.g. Do you have a big family? I don't have any brothers or sisters). 15.1.2 Other expressions using have 1 I'll have the chicken/some tea, please. 2 He's having a shower/bath/rest. 3 She's just had a little girl, 4 She had an enormous hal on. 5 We've had a marvellous holiday. We didn't have any irouble with the car. 6 Have a try! Did they have a quarrel? 15.1.3 had better You had better decide quickly. You'd better not have any more lo drink! have in ihese examples means 1 'eat' or 'drink' 2 'take' 3 'give birth to' 4 'wear' 5 'experience' 6 In these examples and others like them, have means the same as the word it is used with (e.g. 'try', 'quarrel'). had better is used to give strong advice (= ought > GS 7.10) 15.2 do and make 15.2.1 Meanings of do and make 1 What are you doing? I'm doing a puzzle. 2a I'm making a cake. This firm makes TV sels. b The car journey made him sick. c They made him work very hard. 1 do can mean 'perform an action in general' and 'solve or put together'. 2 make can mean a 'create' or 'construct' b 'cause to happen' c 'force' 15.2.2 Other expressions using do and make DO MAKE - a course - History, Maths, - arrangements - money - a favour Science (as - an attempt a noise - homework subjects) - Ihe beds an offer - military - work or jobs - a decision a phone call service in general - an effort a profit - something/ (the cleaning/ - an excuse - a speech nothing/ gardening - love - a suggestion anything etc.) - a mistake trouble Notice there are many phrasal verbs with do and make. t> GS9.5 181 ]