THE LOST CIVILIZATION SPEAKING This image was found in an ancient temple in Mexico. One writer thinks the picture shows a man in a spaceship. In pairs, discuss one of the questions below. 1 What can you see in the picture that might make some people believe that this is a picture of a man in a spaceship? 2 Try to identify parts of the 'spaceship', such as the controls, the engine, etc. READING Five paragraphs have been removed from the text below. Choose from paragraphs (A-F) on the next page the one which fits each gap (0-4). Gap 0 has already been done for you. There is one paragraph you do not need. 0 E Very little was known about this ancient civilization at the time, but Catherwood's drawings in the book revealed incredible cities with temples, pyramids and other buildings as impressive as those of their northern neighbours, the Aztecs. These cities, however, were deserted. The people had vanished. When he wrote this, Stephens had already realized that these places were not cities in the European sense. They were, in fact, sacred gathering places for the farmers in the surrounding areas, consisting of a huge central square with various religious buildings around it. The people would journey there lor the great religious festivals, and at other times the vast buildings would be empty except for the priests and some of the nobles. In spite of the violence of their religion, the Mayas' civilization was very advanced. Their engineers were capable of moving huge blocks of stone long distances and cutting them into precise shapes and sizes. They also had a highly-developed system of government and of agriculture, as well as an incredibly accurate system for measuring time. A more traditional explanation is that they developed their skills over more than a thousand years, and most archaeologists believe that the process of development began as long ago as 500 BC. The Mayas first began building their great cities in 250 AD, and developed a strong and stable society that lasted for centuries. Some people believe that the end of the Mayas may have been brought about because of diseases or epidemics. Others think that it may have been caused by sudden environmental changes. The real reasons for the sudden collapse of their civilization may never be discovered. All we really know is that when the first Europeans arrived in 1517, this great and mysterious culture was only a memory. A At some stage however, Mayan civilization collapsed. Their society was suddenly and totally destroyed, and by the year 1200, their last great capital, Chichen Itza was deserted. All over the Yucatan, the great temples and pyramids were abandoned and allowed to fall into decay as the jungle grew back around them. B The discovery of the cities was an experience that most archaeologists could only dream of. As Stephens wrote in his book 'We lived in the ruined palaces of their kings,- we went up to their desolate temples and fallen altars, and wherever we moved was saw evidence of their taste, their skill in arts, their wealth and power. As we stood in the desolation and ruin, we looked back to the past and imagined every building perfect, with its terraces and pyramids and its sculptured and painted ornaments.' C The Mayas were the only early civilization on the American continent to develop a form of writing that could express all types of thought and language. They used a combination of signs and symbols, and in recent years, considerable progress has been made in understanding these texts. D These scientific achievements are particularly remarkable because there is no evidence that the Mayas had any contact with any other ancient cultures. Indeed, one writer has tried to prove that the Mayas must have been visited by aliens from outer space, and that their gods were astronauts. E In 1841, a book was published that astonished the world. It was called Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan. The author, John Lloyd Stephens, had just returned from a long, difficult and dangerous journey through the thick rainforests of southern Mexico and Guatemala. He had gone there with Frederick Catherwood, an architect and artist, to search for the remains of a lost civilization called the Mayas. F The Mayan ceremonies that were held here were terrifying occasions, because the Mayas believed in gods that demanded human sacrifice. Sometimes the believers would offer their own blood to please the gods, and would cut themselves by passing a rope of thorns through their mouth. At other times, they would sacrifice prisoners or children, and Mayan paintings show how they would tear a victim's heart out and then cut off his head. B In pairs or groups, go through paragraphs A-F again and say why you think they fit the gaps. For example, paragraph E, which fills gap 0, contains information you need to answer these two questions. • Which 'ancient civilization' is the text about? • Who was'Catherwood'? You would expect to have this information before reading the first paragraph on page 154. VOCABULARY Which is the word in each group that does not belong? 1 jungle desert forest woods deserted abandoned inhabited empty disappear vanish destroy leave incredible astonishing unbelievable plain exact general accurate precise mysterious unusual ordinary strange collapse develop decay fall disprove demonstrate show confirm LANGUAGE STUDY Review of phrasal verbs In each sentence, an important word is missing. Can you work out which word you need? 1 For some mysterious reason, the Mayan system of government suddenly_down. 2 Nobody knows what brought this collapse 10 11 12 But when it happened, it was as if a candle had suddenly gone_. No doubt the Mayas had gone_some difficult times before. Perhaps the Kings found they could no longer count_the support of the people. Perhaps important supplies of food and minerals were suddenly_off. Perhaps the people_down with strange diseases. Writers will probably continue_for an explanation. But I doubt if they will ever_up with a satisfactory answer. It is one of the biggest problems historians have ever_up against. They'll just have to_up to the fact that they may never find an answer. Do you think they should_ find an answer? up trying to 154 • UNIT 20 FOCUS ONE FOCUS ONE UNIT 20 • 155 LISTENING S Part 1 A You will hear a guide telling a group of visitors about Chichen Itza. Match the five places (A-E) in the picture with the following buildings. The Temple of Kukulcan | I | The Observatory | 2 \ The Temple of the Warriors | 3 | The Well of Sacrifice The Ball Court Part 2 Listen and complete the notes. Built around F 12 The length of the court is 137 metres and the height of the walls is 1 13 1 [ Ball courts found at I 14 I | Game was probably | 15 | May also have had | 16 [ | Evidence for this comes from 17 Information about the game comes from 5 I H8| 1 Played by between 19 B Listen again and decide which of the places in the picture (A-E) fits the description below. You do not need to use one of them. It may have been used to keep prisoners. 1 6 | It was used to decide who should be sacrificed. | 7 | It was used for an important ceremony once a year. | 8 | It was of scientific significance. | > | I It contains an image of a Mayan god. | 10 | It was where the majority of the victims were killed. I 11 I Aim was to get the ball through 20 Players were not allowed to [_2J_ Sometimes members of the losing team 22 23 Was played very seriously | At other times, was played for ! 24 | | which was used as Winners also were given the clothes of 261 ~]and [rf] VOCABULARY Read the text and choose the best answer, A, B, C orD. In 1967, a research team from an American university (1)_out to explore the Well of Sacrifice at Chichen Itza. Unfortunately, however, the water in this well was so dark that is was impossible for divers to see, so the team had to use filters to clean it. Just as this work was about to begin, some (2)_Indians told the team that the well was (3)_by the spirit of a rain god. The god was (4)_as Chac, and they warned the team that Chac would (5)_revenge if his home was disturbed. The team listened politely but (6)_ these warnings and went on with their research. (7)_the summer, pumps and filters were used, but it wasn't until (8)_months later that the water was clear enough for divers to go down into the well. When they got (9)_to work they began to discover various objects at the (10)_of the well. (11)_the things tbey brought back to the surface were human bones, and by the time they had (12)_, they had recovered more than 50 skeletons. This was (13)_that the well had indeed been used for human sacrifice. Perhaps it would have been better if the team had (14)___to the warnings of the Indians, because within a year, several members of the team had been (15)_in mysterious accidents. 1 A 2 A 3 A 4 A 5 A 6 A 7 A D 8 A 9 A 10 A 11 A 12 A D 13 A 14 A 15 A put B broke C set D looked local B natural C near D close lived B housed C resided D inhabited named B called C told D known have B make C do D take ignored B refused C denied D rejected Along B Within C Throughout Inside few B several C various D any down B through C about D at end B ground C depth D bottom Between B Around C Within D Among ended B finished C concluded achieved clear B proof C listened B heard died B wounded evident D obvious C noticed D watched C killed D missed LANGUAGE STUDY General revision 1 Rewrite the following sentences using the word in bold. 1 Stephens really wanted to see the ruins. forward Stephens was really_ _the ruins. 2 He said 'They're the most beautiful things I've . so ever seen! never He said that_ beautiful before. 3 'Where have the people gone?' he asked, wondered He_gone. 4 Although he was ill, he visited other ruins. spite In_he visited other ruins. 5 Reaching the other cities wasn't easy, difficult The_reach. 6 They managed to return to New York. succeeded They_to New York. 7 Stephens wrote his book in three months. took It_ __write his book. 8 People were very interested in it at the time. found People_at the time. 9 The book was so good that everyone bought it. such It_that everyone bought it. 10 I haven't read it for ages, but I loved it. been It_I read it, but I loved it. 156 • UNIT 20 FOCUS TWO FOCUS TWO UNIT 20 • 157 READING A Read extracts 1 and 2 below from a tourist brochure and underline all the words you think should not be there. An example is given. MEXICO EXCURSIONS 1 ROUGH GUIDE TO VALLARTA One of the best ways for to get to know Puerto Vallarta is to take this professionally-guided tour. A guide who he can speak English and Spanish will pick you up in the front of your hotel and deliver you back in time for a lunch. You will have a chance to walk through this Mexican charming small town and during the morning, you'll discover about its main plaza, and see its other attractions like as the Marina Pier and the cathedral. Afterwards, you will also be able to hunt out a few shopping bargains in the flea market. 2 SURF AND TURP If you will want to see a different side of Mexico, this is a great opportunity to see the Vallarta's unspoilt coast and the countryside. You will be travel to the scenic south coast of Vallarta, and visit Mismaloya beach, where the movie 'Night of the Iguana' was filmed there. You'll be able to have swim in the sea or, if you would prefer, you can just relax yourself and have a drink on a beautiful white sandy beach. After then we'll go inland to one of the area's most best restaurants in a spectacular forest setting, and take an part in a guided walk of the forest. B In extracts 3 and 4 write the correct form of the words given below. 1 fascinate 2 wonder 5 include 6 comfort 9 enjoy 10 choose 3 civilize 4 see 7 fly 8 impress 3 MEXICO CITY - 2 days/1 night Spend a (1)_two days taking time out to visit the metropolis of this (2)_country, namely Mexico City. Fly with us to the land of the early Mayan and Aztec (3)_, and experience this land of magnificent (4)_, set against high snow-capped mountains. This all- (5)_ tour covers a half day tour of the fascinating city, an overnight stay in a (6)_two-star hotel and all (7)_. You will also have a full-day tour out to San Juan Teotihuacan, the City of the Gods, built around 100 BC. Visit the (8)_temples of the sun and the moon, and other remains of this ancient culture. 4 FIESTA MEXICAN A A thoroughly (9)_evening with the chance to experience a real Mexican party, which includes a (10)_of real Mexican drinks such as Margaritas, rum, tequila and beer! With a delicious Mexican-style buffet plus Mexican folk-dancing. C Now fill in the spaces in extracts 5 and 6 with one word only. 5 BACK TO NATURE BBQ CRUISE Get away from it (1)_and leave the crowds (2)_as we sail north of Vallarta (3)_ our own boat, The Adventure. We will stop at (4)_Marieta Islands, (5)_are uninhabited. Later we will call at the Hidden Paradise Beach, (6)_you will be able to swim, snorkel or simply sunbathe and imagine you (7}_ Robinson Crusoe. The excursion costs £30, including a barbecue.(Note: no toilets (8)_restaurant facilities are available here.) 6 SAILING CHARTERS If you really want a change (9)_the stresses and strains (10)_work, why not charter a sailing boat (11)_ . the day. You will be able to sail wherever you want, stop anywhere, and find secluded sandy beaches and complete privacy. The cost includes a free lunch as well (12)_free snorkelling equipment and windsurfers. With a maximum (13)_six people, you will have the boat (14)_yourselves, or alternatively, we can find sailing partners for you. Don't miss (15)___ on this wonderful chance to cruise in complete tranquillity. D Read the texts again and answer the following questions. Match the numbers of the excursions (1 to 6) with the correct description (A-L). A The beach lacks some important facilities. B People who like to eat and drink a lot will really enjoy this excursion. C It takes the longest. D This one requires a certain number of people. E This excursion goes to an island with no houses. F You will enjoy excellent food and wonderful natural scenery. G It supplies watersports equipment free. H The price includes the cost of alcoholic drinks. I This excursion only takes a morning. f On this excursion, you go to an archaeological site. K You will have a chance to buy souvenirs. L This one involves staying in a different hotel. SPEAKING LANGUAGE STUDY A Talking about yourself 1 Which of the excursions above would interest you if you were on holiday in Mexico? Explain why. 2 Which excursions would you not like to go on? Why? B Problem solving In pairs, plan a one-day excursion which you think would be of interest to a group of tourists coming to the area where you live. Include meals and decide what kind of transport you might use. When you have finished, compare your excursion with that of another pair of students. C Discussion 1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of travelling in an organized group and travelling alone? 2 Some people say travel broadens the mind. Explain why you agree or disagree with this statement. WRITING_ When you have finished, work alone for a few minutes. Write out a short description of one excursion. Spend no more than five minutes doing this. Afterwards, compare what you have written with what your partners have written. General revision 2 Rewrite the following sentences using the words in bold. 1 The subject of the guide's lecture was Uxmal. talk The guide_Uxmal. 2 I spent an hour travelling to Mexico City. took It_travel to Mexico City. 3 Could you take me back to my hotel? lift Could you_back to my hotel? 4 The baby-sitter can look after the children, take The baby-sitter can_the children. 5 We can organize everything for you. arrangements We can_for you. 6 I once studied Mayan architecture. course I once_Mayan architecture. 7 I enjoyed the excursion. time I_the excursion. 8 I talked to the guide for a long time, conversation I_the guide. 9 We have to decide what to do tomorrow. make We have to_ _what to do tomorrow. 10 Would you like to see the photos I took? have Would you like to_the photos I took? 11 Uxmal didn't impress me as much as Chichen Itza. think I didn't_ _as Chichen Itza. 12 I'm so sorry we can't stay longer, wish I_longer. 13 He was so tired he couldn't go on the excursion, too He_on the excursion. 14 I paid someone to make this dress for me in Mexico. made I_me in Mexico. 15 I've never stayed in such a good hotel. ever This is the__stayed in. 16 Do ancient cities interest you or not? find Do_or not ? 17 Could you come back a bit later? mind Would_a bit later? 18 She said to the tourists 'Please don't take photographs in the museum.' asked She_take photographs in the museum. 19 'Don't take any more photographs!' she ordered. stop She told them to_ photographs. 20 I expect you don't want to revise any more for the exam. tired I expect you_for the exam. 158 • UNIT 20 FOCUSTHREE FOCUSTHREE UNIT 20 • 159 WRITING Report 3 When you write a report, you should use language that is as simple and clear as possible. Above all, you must make sure that you answer the exam question fully. A Sample task A travel company has asked you to write a short report on the city or town you live in or near. They want to know if it is famous for anything that might attract tourists, what kind of tourist accommodation is available, which other major cities it is near, the quality of food in local restaurants and anything else that tourists might find interesting. B Read the sample answer. Choose from list A-E the best heading for each paragraph (1-5). Dortmund is one of the most important cities in the north-western part of Germany. It is close to Essen, Düsseldorf, Cologne and other major cities in the Ruhr and Rhineland area. It used to be a centre of the coal mining and steel industries. Dortmund is famous for its beer. There are five breweries. It also has a theatre, a small opera house, a very large sports stadium and a well-known football team. The surrounding countryside is very attractive. In addition, a national garden exhibition takes place there each year. Dortmund has a wide range of hotels and other accommodation for tourists. Rail connections are particularly good. It also has a small airport with flights to most major German cities. Although Dortmund is not famous for its cuisine, there are many restaurants there that offer excellent value for money. Local pubs also serve excellent beer and light meals. I would recommend a stay of one or two days in Dortmund to tourists who are interested in visiting a typical, middle-sized German city. A Conclusion B Most important features C Travel and accommodation D Food and drink E Location and type of city C Writing task A travel company is arranging a 7-day tour of your country. You have been asked to write a report on the city or town you live in or near, saying why it should be included in the tour. D Discussion Before you write, discuss in pairs or groups what you can say about that city or town. As you talk, keep these questions in mind. 1 Where exactly is it? What else can you say about its size or location and the other places it is near? 2 Is it or has it ever been a centre of industry or commerce? If so, what kind of industry or commerce? 3 Is it famous for anything? If so, what? 4 Can you think of anything else that might interest tourists? 5 What about the surrounding countryside? 6 How could tourists get there? 7 What kind of accommodation is available? 8 What kind of food and drink is available in local restaurants? 9 What kind of tourists would you recommend it to? 10 How long should they stay? E Now write your report, covering points 1-6 below. 1 A brief description of the city or town and where it is. 2 Information about the main attractions or places of interest; events there or nearby,- the surrounding countryside. 3 How to get there; what kind of accommodation is available. 4 Information about where to eat. 5 At least one reason for recommending it and the kind of tourist you hope would find it worth visiting. 6 A typical length of stay for such a tourist. REVISION AND EXTENSION LANGUAGE STUDY Complete the passage with the best word, A, B, C or D. One of the most exciting archaeological discoveries in history was made in November 1922, when Howard Carter was working in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. After many months of work, he finally (1)_across an unknown tomb. Together with his friend Lord Carnarvon, who was providing the (2)_for the excavations, he entered the dark chamber. At first there was disappointment, because the tomb was (3)_., and it was clear that it had been (4)__at some time in the past. However, one of the workers eventually uncovered a small stairway that (5)_down to another door that had not been opened. Carter went down the dark staircase, walking (6)_in case there were any traps. As he opened the door, Lord Carnarvon (7)_if he could see anything. He replied 'Yes - wonderful things.' It was clear at once that they had discovered what they had been looking (8)_. The tomb of the boy pharaoh Tutankhamun was full of treasures of great (9)_. There were over 5,000 objects of silver, gold and precious stones which had (10)__ there undiscovered for thousands of years. Lord Carnarvon's pleasure at (11)_the treasures did not (12)_long. Many of the local people were afraid of disturbing the pharaohs' tombs, and believed that the pharaohs would (13)_ revenge on anyone who entered them. Lord Carnarvon had (14)_little attention to these warnings, but only a few weeks later, he suddenly fell ill and died; at the exact time of his death, all the lights in Cairo suddenly (15)_out, and far away in England, his dog also died. 1 A came B arrived C got D found 2 A salary B money C currency D wage 3 A deserted B abandoned C left D empty 4 A taken B robbed C stolen D broken 5 A took B brought C led D conducted 6 A accurately B carefully C carelessly D precisely 7 A demanded B requested C questioned D asked 8 A into B after C up D for 9 A expense B price C cost D value 10 A lied B laid C lain D lying 11 A discovering B inventing C learning D searching 12 A stay B take C make D last 13 A have B take C make D bring 14 A sent B paid C taken D made 15 A went B passed C gave D ran General revision 3 Rewrite the sentences, using the words in bold. 1 You'd better take some cash as the banks may be closed. are You'd better take some cash_ _closed. 2 It's almost certain that someone saw the thief leaving. must Someone_leaving. 3 I made a lot of mistakes because I didn't concentrate. concentrated If I_ _have made so many mistakes. 4 I haven't been able to relax for a long time. since It's been a long time_ to relax. 5 The computer she bought was very cheap, pay She_the computer. 6 Mary doesn't just dance, she also sings. only Not_but she also sings. 7 The child started walking three months ago. for The child_three months. 8 'Please explain something to me,' I said to the teacher. asked I_something to me. 9 I left the party because I was bored. not I_the party if I hadn't been bored. 10 Someone ought to have done this job yesterday, should This job_yesterday. 11 Something about the way you talk suggests that you know a lot about this subject. as You talk_ _a lot about this subject. 12 We studied this last week. Have you forgotten? remember Don't you_this last week? 13 'Is he telling the truth?' I asked myself, wondered I_the truth. 14 'If you cause trouble, I'll arrest you,' the policeman told me. warned The policeman_ trouble 15 'Study harder,' our teacher said to us. urged Our teacher__harder. 16 'Don't forget! Answer the exam questions fully,' the teacher said. remember 'I hope you'll_ the exam questions fully,' the teacher told us. 17 I'd like to have more time to study, but I haven't, wish I_to study. 18 You have used this book and we hope it has been enjoyable at least some of the time. enjoyed We hope you have___ least some of the time. 160 • UNIT 20 FOCUS FOUR FOCUS FIVE UNIT 20 • 161 Grammar Summary 1 Adjectives Order of adjectives Other points to notice about the order and use of adjectives Comparative and superlative of adjectives Form Adjectives of one syllable 1.3.3 Adjectives of more than one syllable 2 Adverbs 2.1 Form 2.2 Comparative and superlative of adverbs 2.3 Position of adverbs and adverb phrases in sentences 2.4 Ad verb or adjective ? 3.4.1 Meals 3.4.2 Transport 3.4.3 Places Articles Indefinite article (a/an) Definite article (the) No article (0) Changes of meaning 4 Conditional sentences 4.1 Conditional 1 4.2 Conditional 2 4.3 Conditional 3 5 Gerunds and infinitives 5.1 Verbs followed by the gerund (or -ing form) 5.2 Verbs followed by the infinitive 5.2.1 Verb + infinitive with to 5.2.2 Verb + direct object + infinitive with to 5.2.3 Verb + direct object + infinitive without to 5.3 Verbs followed by either the -ing form or the infinitive 5.4 Other uses of the -ing form 5.5 Other usesof the infinitive 7.7 7.8 7.9 Link words Words expressing result Words expressing reason Words expressing purpose Words expressing contrast Modals will shall would should may and might can 3 The passive 8.1 Most common forms B.2 Use 3.3 Points to remember 9 Phrasal verbs 3.1 What is a phrasal verb? 3.2 Phrasal verbs which can be separated 3.2.1 Verb + adverb + object 6.5 Words expressing time 6.6 Words expressi ng condition 6.7 Words expressing additional information or reinforcing a point could must have (got) to 7 AO ought to 7.11 need 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.4 9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 11 11.1 11.1.1 11.1.2 11.1.3 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.3 Phrasal verbs which cannot be separated Verb + adverb (no object) Verb + adverb + preposition + object Ordinary verbs + prepositions Verb check-list Verbs which can be separated Verbs which cannot be separated Prepositions among at between beyond by except for from in into 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 of off on out of since to under until/till up with/without Relative clauses Defining relative clauses Relative pronouns in defining clauses Leaving out the relative pronoun in defining clauses Prepositions used with relative pronouns in defining clauses Non-defining relative clauses Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses Prepositions used with relative pronouns in non-defining clauses Participle phrases 12 Reported speech 12.1 Tenses 12.2.4 Verb + for + -ing form 12.1.1 Changes 12.3 Reporting requests and orders 12.1.2 No changes 12.4 Reporting questions 12.2 Reporting statements 12.5 Reporting suggestions 12.2.1 Verb (+ that) 12.6 Other points to notice about 12.2.2 Verb + pronoun/noun (+ that) reported speech 12.2.3 Verb + infinitive 13 Tense forms 13.1 Present forms 13.2.1 Past simple 13.1.1 Present simple 13.2.2 used to and would 13.1.2 Present progressive 13.2.3 Past progressive 13.1.3 Present perfect 13.2.4 Past perfect 13.1.4 Present perfect progressive 13.2.5 Past perfect progressive 13.2 Past forms 13.3 Talking about the future 14 Wishes, regrets and preferences 14.1 Wishes and regrets 14.2 Preferences 15 Words that cause difficulties 15.1 have 15.2 do and make 15.1.1 Three basic uses of have 15.2.1 Meanings of do and make 15.1.2 Other expressions using have 15.2.2 Other expressions using 15.1.3 had better do and make 1 Adjectives ] 1.1 Order of adjectives Several adjectives can be used before a noun in English. See p. 64 for a guide to the order in which they can be used. In general we put the more precise adjective nearest the noun but it is not always easy to decide which is the most precise; a possible order would be: (D (2) (3) (4) determiner, your own opinions, dimensions (size, weight), age, (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) shape, colour, place of origin, material, purpose. Examples - a Chinese silk wedding dress - some short blue denim jeans - an awful old stair carpet 1.2 Other points to notice about the order and use of adjectives | 1 He is 1 metre 30 tall. 2 I don't like living alone. 3 It's difficult to read. The instructions are easy to 1 Adjectives describing measurement come after the measurement. foliow. 4a She was worried about him. He's a worried man. b It's all very worrying. It's a worrying time for us all. 2 Some adjectives (e.g. alone, afraid, alive, awake) come after the verb, never before a noun. 3 Adjectives are often followed by an infinitive with to. 4a Adjectives ending in -ed come after a verb like be, seem or before a noun and describe a person's feelings. b Adjectives ending in -ing come after a verb or before a noun and describe the person or thing that produces those feelings. 1.3 Comparative and superlative of adjectives > pp. 75, 87 .3.1 Form 1a London is bigger than 1 a Edinburgh. b This armchair is more comfortable than that wooden seat. 2a This is the biggest factory in the 2a area. b I have many old books but this is the most interesting. We form the comparative by adding -erto one-syllable adjectives and to two-syllable adjectives ending in -y using more + two- and more than two-syllable adjectives + than We form the superlative by adding -est to one-syllable adjectives and to two-syllable adjectives ending in -y using most + two- and more than two-syllable adjectives 3 He is as strong as a horse. He isn't as/so clever as his sister. 3 We use as + adjective + as for positive comparisons or not as/so + adjective + as for negative comparisons. 1.3.2 Adjectives of one syllable If the adjective ends in two consonants (e.g. -ng, -rd, -rm) just add -er, -est to the adjective: long longer longest hard harder hardest warm warmer warmest If the adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant (e.g. -in, -at, -ot) double the consonant and add -er, -est to the adjective: thin thinner thinnest fat fatter fattest hot nofter hottest If the adjective ends in -e add -r, -st to the adjective: wide wider widest rude ruder rudest best worst most farthest Exceptions good better bad worse much/many more far farther (used to describe distance but can also mean 'additional, extra' e.g. further details, further information) old older oldest (used to describe objects and people) old elder eldest Notice elder, eldest are used before a noun to talk about family relationships but after a verb only older, oldest are possible (e.g. My older/elder brother. My brother is older than I am.) 1.3.3 Adjectives of more than one syllable 1 I've never been happier than I am now. Friday the 13th is the unluckiest day of the year in Britain. 2 Sally is cleverer/more clever than her brother. The commonest/most common cause of road deaths is careless driving. 3 I find science more interesting than the arts. He told me the most extraordinary story. If the adjective ends in y, change the y to / and add -er, -est to the adjective. Exception friendly, more friendly, most friendly Some adjectives with two syllables can form their comparative and superlative in two ways: either by adding -(e)r, -(ejst or by using more, most. If the adjective has three (or more) syllables use more, most + the adjective. 2 Adverbs 2.1 Form 1 quick quickly slow slowly 2 careful carefully beautiful beautifully 3 lucky luckily funny funnily 4 He greeted me in a friendly way. She looked at me with a silly expression on her face. Adverbs can be formed from adjectives by adding -ly. The same rule applies to adjectives which end in /. To form adverbs from adjectives ending in y, change the y to i and add -ly. To form adverbs from adjectives ending in -ly we use a phrase in a... way etc. 162 163 We arrived late. Stand up straight. He works very hard. Don't walk so fast. 5 Some adjectives do not change when they become adverbs. Notice lately and hardly have a different meaning from late and hard: lately = recently, hardly = scarcely. 2.2 Comparative and superlative of adverbs 1 She drives more carefully than 1 We usually form the her husband. This is the most efficiently run office in the area. We arrived later than you. He walked the fastest. comparative and superlative by using more, most + adverb. Adverbs with the same form as adjectives form their comparative and superlative with -er, -est. Notice some exceptions to these two rules well better best badly worse worst little less least much more most 2.3 Position of adverbs and adverb phrases in sentences 1 He plays the piano well. 1 She sings beautifully. 2a She's very clever. 2a I can hardly read it. I don't quite understand. b I have enough money. b He's not tall enough to join Ihe police force. They don't work hard enough. 3a 3a He's coming tomorrow. b Yesterday he was in Paris. b Today he's in Rome. 4a The magazine comes out 4a weekly. We are paid monthly. D b Every Saturday we go out. 5a He never buys cigarettes. 5a He always makes his own. b She is always late. c They have never offered to b help. We are often being asked for c information of this kind. 6 Sit down there. He went to the cinema in the 6 High Street in town. Put the book on the table in the dining room. 164 Adverbs which tell us 'how' usually come in the end position. Adverbs which tell us 'to what extent or to what degree' usually come in the middle position. Notice enough comes before a noun and after an adjective or adverb. Adverbs which tell us 'when' usually come in the end position. They can come at the beginning for special emphasis. Adverbs which tell us 'how often' usually come in the end position. Phrases like every week, every Saturday can also come at the beginning of a sentence. Adverbs which 'do not tell us exactly when' usually come before a one-word verb. If the verb is jfje they always follow the verb. If it is a two- (or more) word verb they come after the first part of the verb. Adverbs and adverb phrases which tell us 'where' usually come in the end position with the direction (to the cinema) mentioned first and the places second (smaller places come before larger ones). 7 He reads his newspaper quickly at the breakfast table every morning. 7 Adverbs and adverb phrases which tell us 'how, where and when' usually come in that order in the sen tence (e.g. how = quickly, where = at the breakfast table, when = every morning). 2.4 Adverb or adjective? That smells good, but it tastes awful. Notice If Ihe verb is seem, appear, look, sound, feel, smell or faste we use an adjective not an adverb. 3 Articles 3.1 Indefinite article {a/an) 1 You will need a pen and an exercise book. 2 There was a terrible storm last night. The storm swept across the whole country. 3 A million people received our help last year. A few, however, were not so lucky. 4 We come to classes twice a week. 5 She's a lorry-driver. He's an old-age pensioner. Use with singular countable nouns 1 for more gene ral meaning (it doesn't matter which pen), Notice an is used before a word that begins with a vowel sound (e.g. an hour, an heir, an MP but a university). 2 for a noun mentioned for the first time. Notice we use f/ieforthe - second mention. 3 with numbers (e.g. a hundred, a thousand, a million) and fractions (e.g. a half, a quarter etc.). Notice a few (people) = some a little (help) = some but 0 lew (people) = not many 0 little (help) = not much 4 to mean 'every' with expressions of time (e.g. once a year) 5 to describe a person's job or situation 3.2 Definite article {the) Jane: A man phoned last night. Peter: Well, what did the man want? Last night I read the book you recommended. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Use wilh most nouns for more specific meaning to refer back to something already mentioned when we know which one we are talking about when we refer to only one of its kind 4 The computer has revolulionized office systems. pj You can buy the best pizzas in town at Paulo's. g The British and the French agreed to build a channel tunnel. The strong should help the weak. 7 I live in the United States/the Netherlands/the Falklands/the West Indies/the Philippines/the USSR. g Paris lies on the Seine. The Atlantic separates Britain from America. It's very hoi in the Mediterranean at the moment. 3.3 No article (0) ta 0 Museums are interesting 0 places. b 0 Sound travels very fast in 0 water. 2a I live in 0 Rome/0 Percy Road/ 0 China/0 Jersey/near 0 Lake Windermere. b I shop at 0 Harrods. c I read 0 Punch. d The Queen lives in 0 Buckingham Palace. 1 He went to 0 Sheffield University. OMAN FOUND DEADON0 TUBE b Send 0 representative immediately. C 0 Dinner in 0 oven. U You will need a knife and 0 fork. Take a bucket and 0 spade to the beach. Notice these other uses of the A with singular countable nouns when they stand for an invention or a species 5 with a superlative {the first, the most enjoyable) 6 with adjectives as plural nouns 7 with the names of counlries or groups of islands which are plural. Notice these exceptions The United Kingdom, The Yemen 8 with names of rivers, oceans and seas We do not use an article 1a with plural countable nouns and b with uncountable nouns when speaking about the noun in general (e.g. food, music, love, etc.). Compare I hate the sound of a drill (a particular sound). Notice a few uncountable nouns (e.g. advice, news, luggage, information, research) require a phrase like a/the bit of or a/the piece of to refer to a particular example of that noun: a bit of advice, the piece of news 2 with the names of most a towns/cities, streets, countries, single/individual islands, lakes b shops c magazines. Notice these exceptions The Economist, The Listener and most newspapers (The Times, The Daily Mai!) d named buildings e named institutions (e.g. universities, schools, churches, etc.) 3a for newspaper headlines b for telexes (where the message should be as short as possible) c for personal, informal messages 4 before a second no un i n a li nked pair of nouns 4 Conditional sentences 3.4 Changes of meaning Sometimes the use (or omission 0) of the article changes the meaning of what we say. 3.4.1 Meals 1 A dinner was held last night at the Savoy. The dinner we had last night was marvellous. 2 Come to 0 dinner nexl Saturday. What time do you have 0 breakfast? 3.4.2 Transport 1 I hailed a taxi but il didn't slop. The six o'clock train was ten minutes early, 2 I always travel by 0 bus. I came here on 0 foot. 3.4.3 Places 1 The meeting was held in a school. The workmen are busy in the church repairing the roof. He's al 0 university (studying). She's in 0 hospital (receiving treatment). He's in 0 prison (serving a sentence). 1 a/an or the for particular meals 2 no article (0) for mealtimes in general 1 a/an or the for particular forms of transport 2 no article (0) for the form of transport in general 1 a/an or the to refer to a particular or known place or building 2 no article (0) to refer to the normal activity which goes on at a place or building Both //and unless (= if... not) can be used to introduce conditional sentences. The if-clause can come before or after the main (or 'result') clause. Notice we often use a comma when the if-clause comes first. Conditional 1 1a If you take drugs regularly, you become addicted to them. > pp. 51,57 b If you mix the colours blue and red, you get purple. 2 If you work hard, you'll get a good job. Unless you study, you won't pass your exams. I'll explain it again if you don't understand. Use 1 a for general facts that do not change b for scientific facts. Notice the verbs in both parts of Ihe sentences are in the present. 2 mainly for future possibilities. Notice the verbs after;/and unless are in the present but the verbs in the 'result' part of the sentence are in the future. 165 4.2 Conditional 2 > pp. 51,57 1a If I had a million pounds, I would buy a yacht. If he knew the answer, he wouldn't tell me. If Mary were here now, she would drive me home. b If I were you, I wouldn't marry him. 4.3 Conditional 3 1a We would have gone abroad for our holidays if we hadn't bought a new car. b If we hadn't set out late, we wouldn't have been caught in that traffic jam. c If you had listened to your father, you wouldn't have made so many mistakes. Use 1a for'unreal'or improbable conditions in Ihe present or future b forgiving advice and suggestions. Notice the verbs after//are in the past but the verbs in the 'result' part of the sentence are in the present conditional. > p. 147 Use 1a for'unreal'or impossible conditions in the past b to imply regret c to imply criticism. Notice the verbs after/fare in the past perfect but the verbs in the 'result' part of the sentence are in the perfect conditional. 5 Gerunds and infinitives > pp. 85,89 5.1 Verbs followed by the gerund (or -ing form) I can't stand waiting in queues. We considered buying a house in the countryside, but we enjoy being in Ihe town too much. I miss living abroad. Some verbs are followed by the -ing form. Here are some of the most common: appreciate keep (on) avoid look forward to can't help mention can't stand mind consider miss deny object to dislike practise enjoy put off feel like risk finish suggest give up be/get used to imagine be worth 5.2 Verbs followed by the infinitive 5.2.1 Verb + infinitive with to We can't afford to have a holiday this year. We decided to get married. I managed to find another glass to replace the one I broke. Some verbs are followed by the infinitive with to. Here are some of the most common: afford forget appear happen arrange hope decide intend fail learn manage mean offer plan prepare promise refuse seem threaten 5.2.2 Verb + direct object + infinitive with to He advised me to take the exam. They persuaded me to stay for a few days. Some verbs have a direct object before the infinitive with to. Here are some of the most common: advise persuade allow remind encourage leach force lell invite warn order 5.2.3 Verb 4- direct object + infinitive without to I heard him sing Figaro. He let me borrow his car. He made her tell him the truth. Some verbs have a direct object before the infinitive without to. Here are some of the most common: feel let hear make see Notice hear and see can be followed by the -ing form to express hearing or seeing only part of an action (e.g. compare I heard him singing in the bath.) 5.3 Verbs followed by either the -ing form or the infinitive > p. 89 1 He continued working/to work after everybody else had left the office. 2a I like going to the cinema. She loves dancing. b I like to go to the cinema once a week. She would love to dance the samba with you. 3a I began sludying/to study in 1984. I started writing/to write when I was very young. b I began to see that somelhing was wrong. I started to realize what he had done for me. Some verbs take eilher the -ing form or the infinitive. 1 Sometimes there is very little difference in meaning. 2a When verbs like can't bear, like, love, hate, prefer are followed by the -ing form, they tend to refer to a general activity b but when these verbs are followed by the infinitive, they tend to refer to particular occasions. 3a begin and start can take either the -ing form or the infinitive b but before a verb expressing understanding (see, realize) these verbs are followed by the infinitive. 5a He stopped smoking last week. He remembers going to the seaside when he was a child. He'll never forget eating raw fish for the first time. He stopped the car to pick up a hitch-hiker. He remembered to post the letters. I tried to phone you several times but I couldn't get through. I tried working in a shop, but it didn't interest me. Your hair needs cutting. The garden wants weeding. 4 With verbs like stop, remember, not forget, regret a the -ing form refers to what happens/happened before the main verb e.g. first he smoked, then he stopped; first he went to the seaside, now he remembers the event; first he ate the raw fish, now he remembers the event {never forget = always remember) b the infinitive refers to what happens/happened after the main verb e.g. first he stopped the car, then he picked up a hitch-hiker; first he remembered about the letters, then he posted them 5 try can take either the -ing form or the infinitive but a it is followed by an infinitive when we mean 'to attempt to do something' b it is followed by the -ing form when we mean 'to experiment' 6 need and wanf can be followed by either the -ing form or the infinitive but when they are followed by the -ing form the meaning is always passive. 5.4 Other uses of the -ing form 1 Walking is good for you. 2 After walking to work, I'm ready to sit at my desk all day. 3 I'm afraid of missing the train. He's good at telling others what to do. The -ing form is also used as the subject of a clause or sentence following lime words like after, before, when, since, while after certain adjectives + prepositions. Here are some of the most common: afraid of badat bored with clever at fond of good at keen on interested in tired of worried about 5.5 Other uses of the infinitive 1 I came here to study English. 2 She doesn't know what to do next. Can you explain how to do it? The infinitive is also used 1 to express purpose O GS 6.3 2 after who, what, where, how, whether ana verbs like know, explain, wonder. Notice the infinitive is not used in this way after why. 6 Link words 6.1 Words expressing result 1a He was so tired that he went to bed early. He spoke Russian so well that everyone thought he was Russian- b It was such a difficult exam (that) he knew he wouldn't pass it. 2 It was late, so he decided to take a taxi home. 3a We have invested too much money in this project. Consequently, we are in financial difficulties. b His wife left him and, as a result, he became very depressed. 4 We feel, therefore, that a decision must be made. 1a so + adjective/adverb + that + clause b such + noun + that + clause Notice fnaf can be left out in informal speech. 2 so + clause 3a as a result, consequently, can begin a new sentence. b and, as a result, is used in the middle of a sentence. 4 therefore often comes in the middle of a sentence (it can also come at the beginning or the end). 6.2 Words expressing reason 1 Seeing that/Since/As we arrived late, all the best seats had been taken. 2 We couldn't find a good seat because all the best ones had been taken. 3 We were unable to go by train because of the rail strike. Many of the deaths of older people are due to heart attacks. 1 since, as, seeing that + clause often come before the main clause. 2 because + clause usually comes after the main clause. 3 because of, as a result of, owing to and due to are followed by a noun or noun phrase. Notice due to means 'caused by' or'resulting from'. 6.3 Words expressing purpose 1 We came lo the countryside to find some peace and quiet. Handle the flowers carefully in order not to damage them. 2 He chose this university so that/in order that he could sludy Physics. 1 We can use the infinitives to (do), in order (not) to (do), so as (not) to (do) to express purpose. Notice in order to, so as to are more formal. 2 so fnaf, in order that + clause (often wilh the verbs can, could, might, would in Ihe clause) 6.4 Words expressing contrast 1 Although/Even if/Even though the car is old, it is still reliable. 2a Despite/In spite of the rain, I went for a walk. b We enjoyed our walking holiday despite/in spite of the fact that it was tiring. 1 although, even if, even though + clause can come before or after the main clause. Notice even though is more informal. 2a despite, in spite of + a noun or noun phrase or -ing form b despite the fact that, in spite of the fact that + clause 166 I67 3a Buying a house is expensive. II is, however, a good investment. b It's a big decision to make, though. 4 John is very rich but/while/ whereas his friends are extremely poor. 5 On the one hand these computers are expensive. On the other hand they are exactly what we want. 3a however can come at the beginning, in the middle or al Ihe end of a sentence. b though is more informal and comes al the end of a sentence. 4 but, while, whereas are usually placed in the middle of two main clauses expressing contrasting ideas. 5 on the one hand and on the other hand can be used at the beginning, in the middle or al the end of two sentences expressing contrasting ideas. Notice on the other hand is often used at the beginning of the second sentence. 6.5 Words expressing time 1 When/While/As I was driving along the road, I saw a terrible accident. He went out after he'd finished work. 2 Whenever/Every time I see him, he's driving a different car. 3 First he closed all the windows, then he locked the doors. Later he came back to check thai everything was all right. 4 During/All through the summer we get a lot of visitors. It rained heavily throughout the night. 1 when, white, as and after + clause can come before or after the main clause. r> GS5.4 2 whenever, every time + clause often come before the main clause for added emphasis. 3 first, then, later, etc. can be used to introduce a chain of events. 4 during, all through and throughout are followed by a noun or a noun phrase. 6.6 Words expressing condition > p. 153 and GS4 1 Even if you are born rich, life is still difficult. You can borrow the car as long as you're careful with it! You can't come with me unless you promise to keep quiet. 2 I don't know whether you have met him or not. a They discussed whether they should attend the Games. b It depends on whether the government takes any action. The organizers will decide whether to impose fines. 3 Take this umbrella in case it rains. In case of emergency, break the glass. 1 even if, as long as and unless + clause can be used before or after the main clause. Notice unless means if... not 2 whether + clause usually comes after the main clause and is often used in indirect questions with... or not. a Certain verbs (e.g. discuss) can be followed by whether bul not if. b After prepositions and before to infinitives use whether but not if. [> GS12.4 3 in case + clause usually comes after the main clause. Notice in case of + noun (often used in formal written notices) 6.7 Words expressing additional information or reinforcing a point 7.2 shall 1a I don't really want to go out. tonight. Besides, there's a good film on TV. We are still waiting for the goods we ordered three months ago. Furthermore, we have been overcharged for our last order. b This theory about the origins of the universe is new. It is, moreover, extremely interesting. 2a The painting is not only valuable but also a work of art. She not only writes novels but (she) lectures as well. The house was not only large but (was/it was) also modern. b Not on ly is the restaurant superb but it is also expensive. 3 They robbed a bank as well as a post office. As well as being sent to prison, they were fined £2,000. 4 They like Indian food. I like Indian food too/as well. They aren't very generous people. They haven't got any friends either. 1 a besides, in addition (to that) and furthermore can be used at the beginning of the sentence following the first statement made. Notice besides is less formal, furthermore is more formal. b moreover can be used at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence which gives additional information. 2a not only... but also/as well can link two sentences, phrases or words to give additional information. Notice but also are used together when there is no subject pronoun and verb in the second part of the sentence, but ... also ate separated when there is a verb in the second part of the sentence. b Nor only can come at the beginning of the first part of the sentence to emphasize what the speaker is saying. In this case it is necessary to change the order of the subject and verb. In sentences like these the subject pronoun and verb in the second part of the sentence are usually mentioned and but... also axe separated. 3 as well as can be fo Ho wed by a single word, a phrase or. . .-ing. 4 too, as well and not either are informal and usually come at the end of the sentence which gives additional information. 7 Modals > p. 137 will, shall, would, should, may, might, can, could, must, have (got) to, ought to, need 7.1 will 1 It'll be raining tomorrow. 2 Nothing on TV. I'll go to the cinema instead. 3 Will you sit down, please? I won't go wish you. 4 I'll take you to the cinema. 5 Could you lend me £1? Of course I will. 6 You will start work at 8 on Monday. 7 I will not be treated in this way. will is used lo express. 1 a prediction aboul Ihe future O GS13.3 2 a decision made while you are speaking 3 a request or a refusal 4 a promise 5 willingness 6 an order 7 determination 1 We shall send you the information as soon as possible. 2 Shall we go out for a meal tonight? 3 shall I carry that case for you? 4 No pupil shall enter the library without the permission of a teacher. 7.3 would 1 I'd like to go now. I wish you wouldn't smoke so much. 2 I would move house if I had the money. 3 Would you type this for me, please? 4 I'd rather have tea than coffee. 5 Will you ring me? He asked if I would ring him. 6 He would sing at ihe top of his voice in the shower. 7.4 should 1 I should really help my mother with the dishes (but I won't). 2 You should study harder. 3 We should be taking off in a few minutes. 4 I/We should be most grateful if you could send us a copy of the agreement 5 I should have told you bul I forgol. 7.5 may and might 1 He may/might be the new teacher, 2 He may/might be late this evening. 3 May/Might I ask a question? 4 They may/might have been held up in the traffic. shall is used to express 1 the future (in the same way as will bul only with / and we) 2 a suggestion 3 an offer 4 Notice shall is occasionally used in very formal (written) orders. would is used to express 1 a wish (sometimes suggesting annoyance or disapproval) > GS14.1 2 Ihe 'result' part of a conditional sentence t> GS 4.2-4.3 3 a polite request 4 a preference with rather >GS 14.2 5 the reporting of will t> GS 12.1.1 6 a habit in the past > GS 13.2.2 should is used to express 1 an obligation (which you may not carry out) 2 advice 3 something that will almost certainly happen as long as nothing unexpected prevents it 4 conditional sentences in more formal/written style with / and we 5 (with the perfect infinitive) an obligation which was not carried out may and might are used to express 1 a possibility now 2 a possibility in the future-Notice might is rather less certain than may in meaning. 3 asking for permission. Notice may is more common than might here and can is often used instead of may. 4 (with the perfect infinitive) a possible explanation for something in the past 7.6 can 1 lean ski/drive a car. 2 I'm free tomorrow. I can drive you to the airport. 3 Can I go now? 4 Can you come to the party? 5 You can't be tired! You've been asleep all morning. 6 You can't have been pleased when you realized what he had done! 7.7 could 1 When I was six I could play Ihe piano. 2 When I was younger I could drive for hours without a break. 3 Could I use your phone? 4 Could he be right? 5 They couldn't have phoned her. She hasn't got a phone! 7.8 must > PP- 1 I must wash my hair tonight. 2 The work must be done before tomorrow. 3 You must not smoke in here. 4 You must be exhausted after all that work. 5 You must have been surprised when she said she was getting married. 7.9 have (got) to I've got to/have to be on time tomorrow. We haven't got to/don't have to do it if we don't want to. can is usea to express 1 knowing how to do something 2 being able to do something 3 asking for permission (used informally instead of may) 4 a possibility 5 an unlikely explanation for something now: It's impossible for you to be tired. 6 (with the perfect infinitive) an unlikely explanation for something in the past: It wasn't possible for you to be pleased. could is used to express 1 knowing how to do something in the past 2 being able to do something in the past 3 asking for permission (used informally instead of may but rather more polite than can) 4 a possibility (rather less strong than can) 5 (with the perfect infinitive) an unlikely explanation for something in the past: It wasn't possible for them to phone her. 13, 133 must is used to express 1 a personal obligation 2 what you consider to be someone else's obligation 3 (with not) what is not allowed" 4 a reasonable conclusion made about something now 5 (with the perfect infinitive) a reasonable conclusion about something in the past have (got) to is used to express what is or isn't necessary > GS 15.1.1 168 169 7.10 ought to 1 I really ought to go and see her. 2 I ought to have gone lo see her but I was busy. 7.11 need 1 You needn't shout. I can hear you. You needn't bring anything to the party. 2 Need I take anything to the party? Need you ask that question? 3 You needn't have phoned. I already knew you were coming. ought to is used to express an obligation (which you may or may not carry out) (with the perfect infinitive) an obligation which you did not carry out. Notice ought to is rather stronger than should. 1 needn't is used here as a modal verb. 2 There is also a question form, constructed in the same way as questions with can, must and other modals. 3 needn't with the perfect infinitive expresses the idea that something in Ihe past was not necessary but it was done. Compare the ordinary verb need: You don 'tneed to shout. I can hear you. Do I need to take anything to the party? You didn 'tneed to phone. I already knew you were coming. 8 The passive > p. 131 8.1 Most common forms is It has been done will be seen was reported This toy is made in Japan. A strange object has been seen in the night sky. Further information will be given in our next news bulletin. This report was prepared by a team of experts. 8.2 Use 1 Five policemen have been killed in Northern Ireland. The water was heated and a solution of chemicals was prepared. The passive is formed by using a form of be {is, has been, will be, was, etc.) + the past participle of the verb {made, seen, given, prepared). Notice when the person or thing responsible for the action (the agent) is mentioned, use the preposition by. The passive is used when the agent is unknown (we may not know who killed the policemen) or not important. Notice the passive is often used in newspaper reports and in scientific experiments or processes. A description of the gunman was issued by the police. A charity record has been made by many famous names in the world of pop music. to make the object of the active verb more important (attention is drawn to the description of Ihe gunman rather than who issued it) when the description of the agent is very long (many famous names in the world of pop music) 8.3 Points to remember 1 The painting should be finished by next week. 2 The decorating would have been finished but I ran out of paint. 3 Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Mother Teresa. 4 I got stuck in a traffic jam. She is getting married next month. 5a it is thought that he started the fire deliberately. b He is thought to have started the fire deliberately. 6a He had/got his hair cut yesterday. b He had his car stolen. 7 This job needs/wants doing. 1 Use be + past participle after should and other modals. > GS7 2 Use been + past participle after would have, should have, etc. t> GS7 3 Verbs with two objects which can form two types of active sentence can also form two types of passive sentence. 4 get + past participle is sometimes used instead of be with passive meaning. Expressions with gef are often used in informal English. 5 The passive is used in constructions with verbs like think, believe, say, consider, feel, find, know, understand a after the introductory ft b before an infinitive 6 have/get something done expresses the idea of a arranging for or paying for somebody to do something for you. Notice gef is more informal. > GS 15.1.1 b experiencing something 7 After need, want the -ing form can be used with passive meaning. t> GS5.3 9 Phrasal verbs 9.1 What is a phrasal verb? 1 A phrasal verb consists of a verb plus one or two words like on, up, into, etc. 2 The words which come after the verb are usually adverbs, although sometimes a phrasal verb can consist of verb + adverb + preposition. 3 When an ordinary verb is followed by a preposition, the meaning of the verb will usually be clear from the meanings of the individual parts of the verb. In the case of a phrasal verb, however, the parts of the phrasal verb together have one basic meaning which may be completely different from their individual meanings. Ordinary verbs + prepositions I looked inlo the mirror. She ran out of the room crying. Phrasal verbs The police are looking into the murder. We ran out of money on holiday. Notice these verbs change their meaning when adverbs and prepositions are added e.g. look into (a murder) = investigate; run out of (money) = have none left. 9.2 Phrasal verbs which can be separated 9.2.1 Verb + adverb + object 1 He looked a word up in the dictionary. He looked up a word in the dictionary. 2 He looked it up. 1 If the object is a noun it can come before or after the adverb. 2 If the object is a pronoun (e.g. it) it must come before the adverb. 9.3 Phrasal verbs which cannot be separated 9.3.1 Verb + adverb (no object) They called in to see us. The plans fell through. They turned up unexpectedly. You cannot separate the two parts of the verb. You cannot say 'They called to see us in'. 9.3.2 Verb + adverb + preposition + object We dropped in on the Smiths. We dropped in on them. Even when the object is a pronoun it must come after the adverb + preposition. 9.4 Ordinary verbs + prepositions The boy ran over the bridge. He stepped over the puddle. He stepped over it. The object must come after the verb + preposition, even when it is a pronoun. 9.5 Verb check-list 9.5.1 Verbs which can be separated Back back... up Break break... off break... up - support - bring to an end (talks, engagement) - smash to pieces Bring bring ... about-cause bring ... back - return bring ... off -succeed in doing bring... out - make clear bring ... round- help to regain consciousness bring ... up - raise (a family, a point) Call call... off .up call. Carry carry... out Check check... in check ... out/ over Clear clear... up Count count... in count... out count... up Cross cross... out Cut cut... off cut... out cut...up Do do... out of Draw draw... out Get get... across get... back get... down Give give.. . away give... back give... out give... up Hand hand... in hand ... out hand.. . over -cancel ■ take people into the army - finish, perform a duty - present your ticket/luggage at an airport - make sure everything is as it should be - make lidy - include -not include - add up - put a line through -disconnect (on the phone) -make unavailable - remove with scissors -divide into parts - cheat, stop from having - take money (out of the bank) - explain what you mean - regain possession of - write down - depress, make unhappy - betray, reveal - not take money for -return -distribute -slop doing -present something official - distribute - give up Have have... in/ round Hold hold ... back hold... up Keep keep...back (from) keep...down keep... in Knock knock... down/over knock... out Leave leave... out Let let,.. down let... let... Look look. in off/out . over look... up Make make... out make... up Pass pass... off (as) Pay pay...back Pick pick... up Pull pull... down pull... off Put put. .off - receive as guests - reslrain - delay - rob (a bank) - not tell something, keep secret - retain in the stomach - control - not allow out - make fall - make lose consciousness -omit -not keep a promise -allow to come in - allow lo go free - examine closely - search for and find in a book or list -see clearly -write in certain details - invent in order to deceive -forget your differences/ anger - pretend lo be 170 - return something borrowed - go and collect - take hold of and lift -demolish -succeed in doing - not do something at the proper time, delay 171 put. put. put. . on . out . through put... up Ring ring .. . back ring... up Rub rub... out Run run.. over See see... off Send send... in send... off send... on Set set... back set... up Show show... in show... off - switch on - dress in ■ switch off •connect people on the telephone ■ raise the price of • phone again - phone - make disappear - hit and knock down -say goodbye to - present something/ someone official -post -forward by post - halt progress -organize, establish -bring in -display - boast about take... back take. take,. take.. take.. Think think.. . on . over .up .over -withdraw what you said - return an object - deceive - absorb, understand - accept responsibility for - gain control of - start a hobby - consider carefully - get rid of - check clothes for size -see if it works Throw throw... out Try try... on try... out Turn turn...back -refuse someone entry turn ... down - reject an offer - lower sound (of TV, radio, etc.) turn... into -changeinto something different switch off switch on make louder .off . on Stick stick.. Take take.. .out -put up with turn turn turn... up Wear wear... out Work work... out . away - remove - subtract -make exhausted/ useless - solve a problem -drawup apian 9.5.2 Verbs which cannot be separated Ask ask after ask for Back back out of Break break down break into break out break up -inquire how someone is getting on - request - withdraw from an agreement - stop working (e.g. a car) - collapse emotionally or physically - enter by force -escape (e.g. from prison) -separate (e.g. husband and wife) Burst burst in(to) Call call for call (in) on Care care about care for Carry carry on Catch catch on -enter suddenly -require, demand -pick someone up (al their home) -visit - take an interest in, love - like, look after -continue - become fashionable catch up with - reach the same level as fall through - not succeed (eg. plans) Check Feel check in checkout - register at a hotel -leave a hotel feel like feel up to -want to do - be capable of check up (on) - make sure Get Clear everything is correct get along (with)- have a good relationship with clear off -disappear getaway - escape quickly get away wilh - not be clear up -stop raining get by punished for Come -survive, - find by manage come across get in(to)/ - enter/leave a accident oul car come by -pass get off/on - board/leave a come down - be reduced in train/bus price get on with -continue doing come forward - appear - present oneself - have a good relationship with come off -succeed get out of - escape or come out - appear (sun, flowers) avoid (work, a meeting, etc.) come round -visit - regain consciousness get over - recover from (an illness, surprise, etc.) come up -face or meet a get round to -find the time to against problem do something come up with -produce, find get through -succeed in Count doing count on - rely or depend - spend, reach the end of Cut on - manage to live through cut down (on) - reduce get together -meet expenses get up -get out of bed Do Give do away with - get rid of, give in - surrender abolish do without - manage if you Go haven't got go after - pursue, follow something go down - fall (prices) Draw go down with - become ill with draw up -stop (e.g. cars go in for -take up an etc.) interest Drop - enter competitions drop in (on) -visit without an go off - become bad arrangement (e.g. food) drop out -not take part in go on - continue at the last go oul - stop burning, minute shining (of Face light) face up to - confront problems go out with - go to a theatre/ cinema/ restaurant, etc. Fall with a boy/ fall for - be very girlfriend strongly go over/ - examine attracted to through - be deceived by go through - suffer, endure fall in wilh -agree to go up - rise, increase fall out - have an go with - match (e.g. argument colours) 172 Hang hang about/ around hang back hang on hang onto hang up Hold hold on hold onto Join join in join up Keep keep back keep off keep on keep up keep up (with) Live live on live through live up to Look look after look around look for look in on look into look out (for) look through look up to Make make for make up for Miss miss out (on) Pass pass away pass out Pull pull in/up - stand about doing nothing - hesitate -wait - keep a grip on something -put the telephone receiver down (in anger) -wait -not let go - take part in -enter armed forces - stay away from (danger) - stay away from -do something more than once - maintain, not allow to end or fall - go at the same speed or pace - support oneself by means of - survive a difficult period - do what is expected of you - take care of - inspect, survey - search for -visit unexpectedly -investigate -take care -examine, inspect - respect - go towards - compensate for - not take the opportunity to do -die -lose consciousness -stop (e.g. cars) pull out Put put in for put up wilh Ring ring off Run run away/ off with run into run out (of) run over/ through See see aboul/to - move out (to overtake cars etc.) -apply for -standfor, tolerate - put the phone down - elope -take something which does nol belong to you -encounter, meet -collide with - have no more - read or examine quickly arrange, attend to see through - not be deceived by Send send for Set set off/out Sit sit for Stand stand back stand by stand for stand in for stand out stand up for stand up to Stick stick to Stop stop off (at) stopover Take take after take down take off take to - ask to come and see -depart/leave - take an exam - not come too near - stick to what you say -give help, support -mean - tolerate - act as a substitute for - be noticeable -act in support of - resist - not change course -break your journey -spend the night - resemble - write down • leave the ground - like straight away take up Think think of Turn turn back -occupy (limeor space) -begin (a hobby) - have an opinion about - remember -go back where you started from turn oul turn up Wear wear off Write write away (for) • be the result in the end - arrive unexpectedly -disappear (effects of something) - send away (for) by post 10 Prepositions 10.1 among > p. 149 1 Divide these sweets among the children. 2 The workers talked among themselves as they waited to see the boss. 3 He was Ihe only one among all my friends who supported me. Use for a group of things to express 1 'with a share for each of 2 'with one another' 3 'in the group/company of 10.2 at 1 The train left at midnight/8.30p.m. 2a I'll meet you at the corner of the street. b The train stops at Birmingham. I studied at London. 3 Look at this new car. Aim at the centre. Useful expressions af all costs/ events af any rate at church/the hairdresser's/ school af Christmas/ Easter af ease af first (sight) Use to express 1 an exact point of time 2a an exact position or place b wilh the name of a city, town or village if we are interested in a particular point or activity in it rather than the whole place 3 'in the direction of af hand af peace/war astonished at at home/the af present badaf office af sea clever af at last afatime good af af least (when) shocked at af a loss/a af the same shoot af profit time (as) shoutaf at lunch af times smile/laugh af af night at ihe weekend surprised af afonce afwork 173